Thirty-eight of the fifty sovereign states that existed at that time were involved in the First World War to one degree or another. It was simply not possible to control such a large-scale theater of military operations, so the path to signing a peace agreement was quite long and difficult.

Entente's Hundred Day Offensive

The final stage of the long and bloody First World War was the hundred-day offensive. This large-scale military operation of the Entente armed forces against the German army ended in the defeat of the enemy and the signing of the Compiegne Armistice, which ended the war. Belgian, Australian, English, French, American, and Canadian troops took part in the decisive offensive, and Canadian soldiers distinguished themselves.

The German offensive ended in the summer of 1918. Enemy troops reached the banks of the Marne River, but (as before, in 1914) suffered a serious defeat. The Allies began to actively develop a plan for the defeat of the German army. The day of the end of World War I was approaching. Marshal Foch concluded that the most favorable moment for a major offensive had finally arrived. The number of American troops in France by the summer of 1918 was increased to 1.2 million people, which made it possible to neutralize the numerical superiority of the German army. British troops received reinforcements from Palestine.

The main attack site was the area on the Somme River. Here was the border between British and French troops. The flat terrain made it possible to conduct tank battles, and the great advantage of the Allies was the presence of a significant mass of tanks. In addition, this area was covered by a weakened German army. The order of attack was clearly planned, and the plan for breaking through the defense was methodical. All preparations were carried out secretly, using measures to mislead the enemy.

In the year of the end of World War I, the German army was already sufficiently weakened, which made it possible to successfully conduct offensive operations. In August, the Allies began firing at communications centers, rear facilities, observation and command posts, and positions of the Second German Army. At the same time, a tank attack was organized. This suddenness was a complete success. The Amiens operation came as a surprise to the German command, and the battle conditions for the enemy were complicated by thick fog and massive shell explosions.

In just one day of the offensive, German troops lost up to 27 thousand people killed and captured, about four hundred guns, and a significant amount of various property. Allied aircraft shot down 62 aircraft. The offensive continued on August 9 and 10. By this time, the Germans had managed to reorganize for defense, so the advance developed at a slower pace, French and British tanks suffered losses. By August 12, German troops were driven out to Albert, Bray, Sean, west of Roy. The next day, the offensive stopped, as the troops of Great Britain and France completed their task, bringing the end of World War 1 closer.

The front line was reduced by twenty-four kilometers as a result of the Saint-Mihiel operation. During the four days of the active Allied offensive, German troops lost approximately 16 thousand people as prisoners, more than four hundred guns; the losses of the American army did not exceed 7 thousand people. The Saint-Mihiel operation was the first independent American offensive. Despite the fact that success was achieved, the operation revealed shortcomings in the soldiers’ training and the lack of necessary experience among the US command. In fact, the offensive began when the Germans had already managed to withdraw some of the troops from the territory.

Wilson's Fourteen Points

At the beginning of January 1918, the date of the end of World War I, the draft of the future peace treaty was already ready. The document was developed by US President V. Wilson. The agreement envisaged the withdrawal of German armies from Belgium and Russia, the reduction of armaments, the proclamation of the independence of Poland, and the creation of the League of Nations. This program was approved reluctantly by the US allies, but later became the basis of the Treaty of Versailles. The “Fourteen Points” became an alternative to the Peace Decree, which was developed by Vladimir Lenin and was not acceptable to Western states.

The end of World War I was approaching, so the need to develop a document that would regulate relations between countries after the end of hostilities was an important issue. proposed open peace negotiations, after which there would be no secret agreements. It was supposed to make shipping free, remove all economic barriers, establish equality in trade for all states, reduce national armaments to a minimum that is reasonable and compatible with domestic security, and resolve colonial disputes absolutely impartially.

Fourteen points included Russia in the question. All Russian territories must be liberated by the end of World War I. Russia was guaranteed the right to make an independent decision regarding national policy and path political development. The country must be ensured admission to the League of Nations in the form of government that it independently chooses. As for Belgium, complete liberation and restoration were envisaged, without attempts to limit sovereignty.

November Revolution in Germany

Just before the end of World War I, a revolution thundered in Germany, the cause of which was the crisis of the Kaiser’s regime. The beginning of revolutionary actions is considered to be the uprising of sailors in Kiel on November 4, 1918, and the culmination is the proclamation of a new political system November 9th, ending day (formally) November 11th, when Friedrich Ebert signed the Weimar Constitution. The monarchy was overthrown. The revolution led to the establishment of parliamentary democracy.

First Truce of Compiegne

The end date of World War I was approaching. Since the end of October 1918, there was an active exchange of peace notes with the United States, and the German high command sought to obtain the best Better conditions truce. An agreement between Germany and the Entente to cease hostilities was signed on November 11. The end of World War I was officially documented in the French region of Picardy, in the Compiegne Forest. The final results of the conflict were summed up by the Treaty of Versailles.

Circumstances of signing

At the end of September 1918, the German command informed the Kaiser, who was at his headquarters in Belgium, that Germany's position was hopeless. There were no guarantees that the front would hold out for at least another day. The Kaiser was advised to accept the terms of the US President and carry out reforms in the government in order to hope for better conditions. This would allow the responsibility for Germany's defeat to be shifted to the democratic parties and parliament, so as not to tarnish the imperial government.

Armistice negotiations began in October 1918. Later it turned out that the Germans were not ready to consider the Kaiser’s abdication, which Woodrow Wilson demanded. Negotiations were delayed, although it was absolutely clear that the end of the 1st World War was approaching. The signing ultimately took place at 5:10 am on November 11 in the carriage of Marshal F. Foch in the Compiegne Forest. The German delegation was received by Marshal Von and British Admiral R. Wimyss. The truce came into force at eleven o'clock in the morning. One hundred and one salvos were fired on this occasion.

Basic terms of the truce

According to the signed agreement, hostilities ceased within six hours from the time of signing, the immediate evacuation of German troops from Belgium, France, Alsace-Lorraine, and Luxembourg began, which was to be completely completed within fifteen days. Following this, German troops were to be evacuated from the territory on the western bank of the Rhine River and within a radius of thirty kilometers from the bridges on the right bank (with further occupation of the liberated territories by the Allies and the United States).

All German troops had to be evacuated from the eastern front to the position as of August 1, 1914 (July 28, 1914 - the date of the start of World War 1), and the end of the withdrawal of troops was replaced by the occupation of US and Allied territories. The naval blockade of Germany by Great Britain remained in effect. All submarines and modern ships of Germany were interned (internment is forced detention or other restriction of freedom of movement). The enemy command had to hand over in good condition 1,700 aircraft, 5 thousand locomotives, 150 thousand carriages, 5 thousand guns, 25 thousand machine guns and 3 thousand mortars.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

Under the terms of the peace, Germany had to abandon the Brest-Litovsk Treaty with the Bolshevik government. This agreement ensured the exit of the RSFSR from the First World War. At the first stage, the Bolsheviks persuaded Western states to conclude a universal peace and even received formal consent. But the Soviet side delayed negotiations to agitate for a general revolution, while the German government insisted on recognizing the right to occupy Poland, parts of Belarus and the Baltic states.

The fact of concluding the agreement caused a sharp reaction both among the opposition in Russia and in the international arena, which led to an aggravation of Civil War. The agreement did not lead to the cessation of hostilities in Transcaucasia and Eastern Europe, but was divided by the “clash of empires,” which was finally documented by the end of World War I.

Political consequences

The dates of the beginning and end of World War I outline an important period in modern history. As a result of hostilities, Europe ended its existence as the center of the colonial world. The four largest empires, namely German, Ottoman, Russian and Austro-Hungarian, collapsed. Communism spread throughout the Russian Empire and Mongolia, and the United States moved to a leading position in international politics.

After the end of the First World War, several new sovereign states emerged: Lithuania, Poland, Latvia, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Finland, the State of the Slovenian-Serbs and Croats. The socio-economic processes of the turn of the century slowed down, but contradictions on an ethnic and class basis, as well as interstate contradictions, intensified. The international legal order has changed significantly.

Economic consequences

The consequences of the war were catastrophic for the economies of most countries. Military losses amounted to $208 billion and were twelve times the gold reserves of European states. A third of Europe's national wealth was simply destroyed. Only two countries increased wealth during the war—Japan and the United States. The States finally established themselves as the leader of economic development in the world, and Japan established a monopoly in Southeast Asia.

The wealth of the United States increased by 40% during the years of hostilities in Europe. Half of the world's gold reserves were concentrated in America, and the value of production increased from 24 to 62 billion dollars. The status of a neutral country allowed the United States to supply military materials, raw materials and food to the warring parties. Trade volumes with other countries doubled, and the value of exports tripled. The country eliminated almost half of its own debt and became a creditor totaling $15 billion.

Germany's total expenditures amounted to 150 billion in local currency, and the national debt increased from five to one hundred and sixty billion marks. By the end of World War I (compared with 1913), production volumes decreased by 43%, agricultural production by 35 to 50%. In 1916, famine began because, due to the blockade by the Entente countries, only a third of the necessary food products were supplied to Germany. According to the Treaty of Versailles, after the end of the armed confrontation, Germany had to pay an indemnity in the amount of 132 billion gold marks.

Destruction and loss of life

During the war, about 10 million military personnel died, including about a million missing in action, and up to 21 million were wounded. The German Empire suffered the greatest losses (1.8 million), 1.7 million citizens died in the Russian Empire, 1.4 million in France, 1.2 million in Austria-Hungary, and 0.95 million in Great Britain. In the war Thirty-four states with a population of about 67% of the world's population took part. As a percentage of the total number of civilians, the most significant losses were suffered by Serbia (6% of citizens died), France (3.4%), Romania (3.3%) and Germany (3%).

Paris Peace Conference

The Paris Conference resolved the main problems of the reconstruction of the world after the end of the First (1) World War. Treaties were signed with Austria, Germany, Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria. During the negotiations, the Big Four (leaders of France, the USA, Great Britain and Italy) held one hundred and forty-five meetings (in an informal setting) and made all decisions that were later ratified by other participating countries (a total of 27 states participated). None of the governments that at that time claimed the status of legitimate power in the Russian Empire were invited to the conference.

Armistice Day celebrations

The day of the signing of the truce in the Compiegne Forest, which put an end to armed clashes, is a national holiday in most states of the former Entente. The centenary of the end of World War I was celebrated in 2018. In the UK, the victims were remembered with a minute of silence; the remembrance ceremony took place in the French capital at the Arc de Triomphe. The ceremony was attended by leaders of more than 70 countries.

The First World War (1914-1918) was of great importance for the subsequent development of world history. The main result of the First World War was the collapse of the four largest empires of the Old World - Russian, Ottoman, German and Autro-Hungarian. A new round of civilization development was beginning in the world.

Results of the First World War for Russia

Already a year before the end of hostilities, Russia, for internal reasons, withdrew from the Entente and concluded the shameful Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany. The revolution carried out by the Bolsheviks changed the course of history for Russia, which will now never gain access to the Mediterranean Sea.

The First World War had not yet ended when the Civil War raged in the territories of the former Russian Empire until 1922.

Rice. 1. Map of the Civil War in Russia.

The new government set a course for building communism through socialism, which led to international diplomatic isolation.

Let's look point by point at what were the consequences of participation in the First World War:

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• The outbreak of the Civil War killed more than 10 million people and maimed even more people.
• During the Civil War, more than 2 million people emigrated abroad.
• Russia concluded the shameful Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, according to which it lost vast territories in the west.
• Foreign intervention caused heavy damage to the border areas of the former empire.
• The established USSR fell into diplomatic isolation due to its opposition to capitalism, taking a course towards building socialism and proclaiming the idea of ​​a world revolution, which alienated the entire world community, including former allies.
• For many years, the USSR was not admitted to the League of Nations, which only happened in 1933.
• Russia forever lost the chance to take possession of the Bosporus and Dardanelles.
• The USSR, formed on the territory of the Russian Empire, abandoned the historical continuity of the empire’s heritage, which served as a reason to exclude it from the list of victorious countries. Soviet Union did not receive any dividends after the victory over Germany.
• The enormous economic damage inflicted on the country from 1914 to 1922 took several decades to recover.

Rice. 2. Territories of Soviet Russia following the results of the Brest Peace Treaty.

While in exile, the Russian army of Baron Wrangel did not lose hope for many years to return to Russia and continue the fight against Bolshevism. The White Guards fought against the Bolsheviks during the revolution in Bulgaria, in Bizerte (Tunisia) the White Guard fleet was in a state of combat readiness for more than ten years, and the Russian army, being in Gallipoli (Turkey) and the same Bizerte, held reviews every day and demonstrated high combat readiness . Not a single state has been able to disarm the White emigrant military formations. They did it themselves when there was no hope of returning to Russia to continue the fight.

Briefly about the results of the First World War

The result of the Entente's victory was the solution of the main tasks that the victorious countries set for themselves. The United States entered the war in 1917, choosing a policy of entering world wars at the very last moment in order to receive maximum dividends as one of the main participants and positioning itself as the state that decided the outcome of the war.

Rice. 3. Territorial changes in Europe after the war.

In total, after the conclusion of the Versailles Peace Treaty with Germany, the following territorial changes occurred in the world:

• Britain received new colonies in South-West Africa, Iraq, Palestine, Togo and Cameroon, North-East New Guinea and a number of small islands;
• Belgium - Rwanda, Burundi and other small territories in Africa;
• Western Thrace was given to Greece;
• Denmark - Northern Schleswig;
• Italy expanded into Tyrol and Istria;
• Romania received Transylvania, Bukovina, Bessarabia;
• France took control of the desired Alsace and Lorraine, as well as Syria, Lebanon and most of Cameroon;
• Japan - German islands in the Pacific Ocean;
• Yugoslavia was formed on the territory of the former Austria-Hungary;

In addition, the Bosporus, Dardanelles and the Rhine region were demilitarized. Germany and Austria became republics, as did many nation-states in the former Russian Empire.

The military results of the war include the acceleration of the development of new weapons and war tactics. The First World War gave the world submarines, tanks, gas attacks and a gas mask, a flamethrower, and anti-aircraft guns. New types of artillery appeared and rapid-fire weapons were modernized. The role has increased engineering troops and cavalry participation declined.

The huge loss of life - more than 10 million military and more than 12 million civilians - was mourned around the world.

The long First World War caused enormous damage to the economies of countries that worked for 4 years for the needs of the front. During this time, the role of the military-industrial complex and state economic planning increased, a network of paved roads developed, and dual-use products emerged.

What have we learned?

The end of the war forever changed the world structure and political map. However, not all the lessons it taught were adopted by the victors, which would later lead to World War II.

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First World War 1914 – 1918 became one of the bloodiest and largest conflicts in human history. It began on July 28, 1914 and ended on November 11, 1918. Thirty-eight states participated in this conflict. If we talk about the causes of the First World War briefly, then we can say with confidence that this conflict was provoked by serious economic contradictions between the alliances of world powers that formed at the beginning of the century. It is also worth noting that there was probably a possibility of a peaceful resolution of these contradictions. However, feeling their increased power, Germany and Austria-Hungary moved to more decisive action.

Participants in the First World War were:

• on the one hand, the Quadruple Alliance, which included Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey (Ottoman Empire);
• on the other hand, the Entente bloc, which consisted of Russia, France, England and allied countries (Italy, Romania and many others).

The outbreak of World War I was triggered by the assassination of the heir to the Austrian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, and his wife by a member of a Serbian nationalist terrorist organization. The murder committed by Gavrilo Princip provoked a conflict between Austria and Serbia. Germany supported Austria and entered the war.

Historians divide the course of the First World War into five separate military campaigns.

The beginning of the military campaign of 1914 dates back to July 28. On August 1, Germany, which entered the war, declared war on Russia, and on August 3, on France. German troops invade Luxembourg and, later, Belgium. In 1914, the most important events of the First World War unfolded in France and are today known as the “Run to the Sea.” In an effort to encircle the enemy troops, both armies moved to the coast, where the front line eventually closed. France retained control of the port cities. Gradually the front line stabilized. The German command's expectation of a quick capture of France did not materialize. Since the forces of both sides were exhausted, the war took on a positional character. These are the events on the Western Front.

Military operations on the Eastern Front began on August 17. The Russian army launched an attack on the eastern part of Prussia and initially it turned out to be quite successful. The victory in the Battle of Galicia (August 18) was accepted by most of society with joy. After this battle, Austrian troops no longer entered into serious battles with Russia in 1914.

Events in the Balkans also did not develop very well. Belgrade, previously captured by Austria, was recaptured by the Serbs. There was no active fighting in Serbia this year. In the same year, 1914, Japan also opposed Germany, which allowed Russia to secure its Asian borders. Japan began to take action to seize Germany's island colonies. However, the Ottoman Empire entered the war on the side of Germany, opening the Caucasian front and depriving Russia of convenient communications with the allied countries. At the end of 1914, none of the countries participating in the conflict was able to achieve their goals.

The second campaign in the First World War chronology dates back to 1915. The most severe military clashes took place on the Western Front. Both France and Germany made desperate attempts to turn the situation in their favor. However, the huge losses suffered by both sides did not lead to serious results. In fact, by the end of 1915 the front line had not changed. Neither the spring offensive of the French in Artois, nor the operations carried out in Champagne and Artois in the fall, changed the situation.

The situation on the Russian front changed for the worse. The winter offensive of the ill-prepared Russian army soon turned into the August German counter-offensive. And as a result of the Gorlitsky breakthrough of German troops, Russia lost Galicia and, later, Poland. Historians note that in many ways the Great Retreat of the Russian army was provoked by a supply crisis. The front stabilized only in the fall. German troops occupied the west of the Volyn province and partially repeated the pre-war borders with Austria-Hungary. The position of the troops, just as in France, contributed to the start of a trench war.

1915 was marked by Italy's entry into the war (May 23). Despite the fact that the country was a member of the Quadruple Alliance, it declared the start of war against Austria-Hungary. But on October 14, Bulgaria declared war on the Entente alliance, which led to a complication of the situation in Serbia and its imminent fall.

During the military campaign of 1916, one of the most famous battles of the First World War took place - Verdun. In an effort to suppress French resistance, the German command concentrated enormous forces in the area of ​​the Verdun salient, hoping to overcome the Anglo-French defense. During this operation, from February 21 to December 18, up to 750 thousand soldiers of England and France and up to 450 thousand soldiers of Germany died. The Battle of Verdun is also famous for the fact that it was used for the first time new type weapon - flamethrower. However, the greatest effect of this weapon was psychological. To assist the allies, an effort was made on the Western Russian Front offensive, called the Brusilov breakthrough. This forced Germany to transfer serious forces to the Russian front and somewhat eased the position of the Allies.

It should be noted that military operations developed not only on land. There was a fierce confrontation between the blocs of the world's strongest powers on the water as well. It was in the spring of 1916 that one of the main battles of the First World War at sea took place – the Battle of Jutland. In general, at the end of the year the Entente bloc became dominant. The Quadruple Alliance's peace proposal was rejected.

During the military campaign of 1917, the preponderance of forces in favor of the Entente increased even more and the United States joined the obvious winners. But the weakening of the economies of all countries participating in the conflict, as well as the growth of revolutionary tension, led to a decrease in military activity. The German command decides on strategic defense on land fronts, while at the same time focusing on attempts to take England out of the war using the submarine fleet. In the winter of 1916–17 there were no active hostilities in the Caucasus. The situation in Russia has become extremely aggravated. In fact, after the October events the country left the war.

1918 brought important victories to the Entente, which led to the end of the First World War.

After Russia actually left the war, Germany managed to liquidate the eastern front. She made peace with Romania, Ukraine, and Russia. The terms of the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty, concluded between Russia and Germany in March 1918, turned out to be extremely difficult for the country, but this treaty was soon annulled.

Subsequently, Germany occupied the Baltic states, Poland and partially Belarus, after which it threw all its forces into Western Front. But, thanks to the technical superiority of the Entente, the German troops were defeated. After Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria made peace with the Entente countries, Germany found itself on the brink of disaster. Due to revolutionary events, Emperor Wilhelm leaves his country. November 11, 1918 Germany signs the act of surrender.

According to modern data, losses in the First World War amounted to 10 million soldiers. Accurate data on civilian casualties does not exist. Presumably, due to harsh living conditions, epidemics and famine, the death toll was twice as high large quantity of people.

Following the First World War, Germany had to pay reparations to the Allies for 30 years. It lost 1/8 of its territory, and the colonies went to the victorious countries. The banks of the Rhine were occupied by Allied forces for 15 years. Also, Germany was prohibited from having an army of more than 100 thousand people. Strict restrictions were imposed on all types of weapons.

But the Consequences of the First World War also affected the situation in the victorious countries. Their economy, with the possible exception of the United States, was in a difficult state. The standard of living of the population dropped sharply, and the national economy fell into disrepair. At the same time, the military monopolies became richer. For Russia, the First World War became a serious destabilizing factor, which largely influenced the development of the revolutionary situation in the country and caused the subsequent civil war.

How the First World War took place (1914 - 1918): reasons, stages, results briefly. The years of the war, its beginning and end, the entire chronicle of events and who won and won. Let's look at the file of losses, how many died and what losses each country suffered. The table of calculations will help you understand the details and see the full picture. You will also find out who were the most famous heroes in Russia and their exploits.

The First World War began on August 1, 1914, and ended on November 11, 1918. During this period, 38 states took part in hostilities, which means that 62% of the world's population were at war at the same time.

The First World War is one of those wars that historians call ambiguous and extremely controversial. One of the reasons for the war was the overthrow of the autocracy in Russia, which the opponents managed to achieve. The Balkan countries played the most significant role in the course of events, but their decisions and actions were directly influenced by England. So, it was impossible to call these countries independent. Germany also had some influence (in particular on Bulgaria), but it quickly lost its authority in the region.

Who with whom?

Two groups of countries took part in the First World War. On one side there was the Entente, on the other - the Triple Alliance. Each group had its own leaders and allies.

The Entente included: the Russian Empire, Great Britain and France. On the side of these countries were the USA, Italy, as well as Romania, New Zealand, Canada and Australia.

The Triple Alliance included: Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. During the hostilities, the Bulgarian kingdom also joined them, which is why the coalition was later called the Quadruple Alliance.

A country	Entering the war	Exit from the war
🌏 Austria-Hungary	July 27, 1914	November 3, 1918
🌏 Germany	August 1, 1914	November 11, 1918
🌏 Türkiye	October 29, 1914	October 30, 1918
🌏 Bulgaria	October 14, 1915	September 29, 1918
🌏 Russia	August 1, 1914	March 3, 1918
🌏 France	August 3, 1914
🌏 Belgium	August 3, 1914
🌏 UK	4 August 1914
🌏 Italy	May 23, 1915
🌏 Romania	August 27, 1916

At the very beginning, Italy was part of the Triple Alliance, but as soon as the outbreak of the First World War was announced, this country declared its neutrality.

Causes

The main reason for the outbreak of the war was the claims of the leading (at that time) world powers to redistribute the world. England, France, Germany and Austria-Hungary planned to expand their spheres of influence in one way or another.

Already by the beginning of the 20th century, the colonial system, which fed the leading powers so well, suddenly failed. European countries have been taking away for decades valuable resources from Africans and Indians, exploiting their colonies. But the world has changed, now resources could not be obtained so easily - the powers decided to take them from each other by force.

Against this background, contradictions grew stronger and stronger:

• England and Germany: the first power did everything possible to prevent the second from strengthening its position in the Balkans. At the same time, Germany not only sought to gain a foothold in the Balkans and the Middle East, but also made efforts to deprive England of its naval supremacy on the world stage.
• Germany and France: the French dreamed of returning Alsace and Lorraine - lands lost during the war of 1870 - 1871. France was also interested in the Saar coal basin, which at that time belonged to Germany.
• Germany and Russia: The Germans were hunting for Poland, Ukraine and the Baltic states, which at that time belonged to the Russian Empire.
• Russia and Austria-Hungary: For these two powers, the main contradictions centered on the desire to influence the Balkans. And Russia also wanted to take the Bosporus and Dardanelles for itself.

Reason for starting the war

The impetus that triggered the First World War occurred in Sarajevo (Bosnia and Herzegovina): nineteen-year-old Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist from the Young Bosnia movement, assassinated Franz Ferdinand, the Archduke and heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne.

“Young Bosnia”, within which Gavrilo Princip acted, being a member of the “Black Hand” organization, fought for the liberation of Bosnia and Herzegovina from the rule of Austria-Hungary. The murder of the heir to the throne was that very step on the path to liberation, but the resonance received on June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo was greater than the participants in those events probably expected.

German helmets from the First World War

Austria-Hungary received a reason to attack Serbia, but at the same time it could not start a war on its own. She needed the help of England, which, in turn, acted aggressively, trying to manipulate Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany. On the one hand, the British insisted that Nicholas II and the Russian Empire help Serbia in case of aggression. On the other hand, the English press exposed the Serbs as real barbarians who could not be left unpunished, thereby pushing Austria-Hungary to take active action.

Thus, the resulting conflict turned into the raging flames of a world war. And England played no small role in this as the leading power of that time.

In textbooks we stick to only the most common facts - the casus belli is the assassination of the Archduke on June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo. But you need to understand that behind the scenes fertile ground was being prepared for the ignition of a full-fledged world conflict:

• Influential French politician Jean Jaurès was assassinated on June 29, the day after the assassination of Franz Ferdinand. Jean Jaurès opposed the war.
• A few weeks before these two murders mentioned above, an attempt was made on the life of Rasputin, an ardent opponent of the war, who had serious influence on Nicholas II, Emperor of the Russian Empire.
• Russian Ambassador Hartley died in the Austrian embassy in Serbia in 1914. By the way, in 1917, his correspondence with Sozonov, the next Russian ambassador to Serbia, mysteriously disappeared.

British diplomats acted “on two fronts”: they egged Germany on, promising to take Germany’s side in the war with Russian Empire or, as a last resort, maintain neutrality; and at the same time, Nicholas II received confirmation that England’s assistance was being prepared for him in a potential war against Germany.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the powers of Russia and Germany were approximately equal in their global influence. Even after the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, these two powers took a wait-and-see attitude, not daring to open military action. If England had made it clear to both Russia and Germany that it would not allow war in Europe, none of these countries would have decided to go to war. Austria-Hungary would also not go to war with Serbia, despite the murder. But England did everything so that each country prepared to fight, promising each side its help behind the backs of the others.

When Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, it was not yet the First World War. To grow from a small war between two states based on murder in world war, all the major powers of the time were to be drawn into the conflict. Each of them was at a different level of readiness for war.

Nicholas II understood perfectly well that the Russian Empire was not ready for military action, but it could not remain on the sidelines, given that its authority in the Balkans, which had been so hard won earlier, was at stake. As a result, the emperor signs a decree on mobilization. And despite the fact that all-Russian mobilization is not yet a declaration of war, Germany and Austria-Hungary took the Russian mobilization as a signal for active action. These two powers even demanded that Russia stop mobilization, but there was no answer. On August 1, the German ambassador Count Pourtales arrived in Russian Ministry Foreign Affairs with a note declaring war.

Military power of powers

Map of military operations in 1914 – 1915 (clickable)

Let's look at the balance of forces and military weapons of key countries in the First World War:

A country	Number of common weapons	Of these heavy guns
🌏 Russian Empire	7088	240
🌏 Austria-Hungary	4088	1000
🌏 Germany	9388	3260
🌏 France	4300	198

Germany and Austria-Hungary turned out to have significantly more heavy guns, but at the same time Germany developed its military industry even more actively. For comparison, England produced up to 10 thousand shells per month, and Germany produced more than 250 thousand per day alone.

Now let's compare the weapons and equipment availability of the leading powers of the First World War:

Side in the war	A country	Weapon	Artillery	Tanks
Entente	Russia	3328	11,7
Entente	France	2812	23,2	5,3
Entente	England	4093	26,4	2,8
Triple Alliance	Germany	8827	64	0,1
Triple Alliance	Austria-Hungary	3540	15,9

It is obvious that the military power of the Russian Empire was greatly inferior not only to Germany, but also to France and England. This could not but affect the course of military operations and losses as a result of the war.

It remains to analyze the number of fighting infantry at the beginning and end of the war, as well as the losses of each side:

Side in the war	A country	Start of the war	End of the war	Losses
Entente	Russia	5.3 million	7.0 million	2.3 million
Entente	France	3.7 million	4.4 million	1.4 million
Entente	England	1 million	3.9 million	0.7 million
Triple Alliance	Germany	3.8 million	7.6 million	2 million
Triple Alliance	Austria-Hungary	2.3 million	4.4 million	1.4 million

What conclusion can we draw from this summary? England suffered the least human losses, which was not a surprise, because this country almost did not take part in major battles.

As a result of the war, it turned out that those countries that invested the most in this war lost the most. While Russia and Germany were losing 4.3 million people between them, France, Austria-Hungary and England together lost 3.5 million. In fact, the war was fought between Russia and Germany and it was these two powers that were left with nothing: Russia lost lands and signed the shameful Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, and Germany lost its independence as a result of the signing of the Treaty of Versailles.

Chronicle of events

July 28, 1914. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. The countries of the Triple Alliance and the Entente were drawn into the conflict.

August 1, 1914. The Russian Empire entered the war. Nikolai Romanov, the uncle of Nicholas II, was appointed Supreme Commander-in-Chief.

As soon as the First World War began, St. Petersburg was immediately renamed Petrograd: the capital of the Russian Empire could not have a name with German origin.

Military operations in 1914

What happened on the fronts:

• Northwestern Front. Military operations took place from August to September 1914. Russian troops carried out the East Prussian operation, which ended in the complete defeat of the first and second Russian armies.
• Southwestern Front. Military operations during the Galician operation also lasted from August to September 1914 against the Austro-Hungarian troops. The latter received reinforcements from Germany, which saved them.
• Caucasian Front. From December 1914 to January 1915, the Sarykamysh operation against Turkish troops took place, as a result of which most of Transcaucasia was occupied.

Military operations on the Eastern Front in 1914

The Russian Empire opposes Germany and Austria-Hungary. Türkiye also joined the latter.

📌 Military operations on the Eastern Front were not successful for either side - no one achieved a tangible victory.

Germany developed a plan to defeat France, then Russia, with lightning speed, but this plan failed miserably. It was called the Schlieffen plan and its essence was to destroy France from the Western Front in 40 days, and then fight Russia on the Eastern Front. The Germans focused on 40 days because they believed that this was the time the Russian Empire needed to mobilize.

The advance of German troops started successfully - on August 2, 1914 they captured Luxembourg, and on August 4 the Germans had already invaded Belgium, which at that time was a neutral country. On August 20, Germany moved towards France, but on September 5 it was stopped at the Marne River. A battle took place there with a total of 2 million people fighting.

Germany thought that it could cope with France while Russia mobilized its troops, but Nicholas II entered the war without a full mobilization of the army. Russian troops attacked East Prussia on August 4, which the Germans did not expect and even retreated at first. But in the end, Germany repulsed the attack, since the Russian Empire did not have full resources or proper organization. Russia lost the battle, but also prevented Germany from implementing Schlieffen’s lightning plan: while the Russian Empire was losing the first and second armies, France saved Paris.

Military operations on the Southwestern Front in 1914

In parallel with the offensive in the East, the Russian Empire went to Galicia, where the Austro-Hungarian troops were located. Despite assistance from Germany, which sent additional divisions to the allied Austria-Hungary, this operation was more successful for the Russian army: Austria-Hungary lost 400 thousand soldiers, another 100 thousand were captured. At the same time, Russia lost 150 thousand.

📌 After the Galician operation, Austria-Hungary left the war, no longer able to fight on its own.

Results of 1914:

1. The German Schlieffen plan to capture the French and Russian armies at lightning speed failed miserably.
2. None of the powers gained a significant advantage during the war.
3. As a result of 1914, the First World War became a positional war.

Military operations in 1915

When it became clear that the Schlieffen plan had failed, Germany directed all its efforts to Eastern front to fight Russia. At that moment, it seemed to Germany that the Russian Empire was the weakest country of the Entente and was much easier to deal with than the others.

The strategic plan for command on the Eastern Front was developed by General von Hindenburg. The Russian Empire thwarted this plan as well, but spent enormous effort on it and only got out at the cost of incredible losses.

What happened on the fronts:

• Northwestern Front. Military operations took place from January to October 1915. As a result of the German offensive, Russia loses Poland, Western Belarus, Ukraine and part of the Baltic states. The Russians take a defensive position.
• Southwestern Front. Military operations lasted from January to March 1915. During the Carpathian operation against the Austro-Hungarian troops, the Russian army loses Galicia and goes on the defensive.
• Caucasian Front. From June to July 1915, the Alashkert operation lasted near lakes Van and Urmia against the Turkish army. In December 1915, the Erzurum operation began.

Military operations on the Northwestern Front in 1915

From the beginning of 1915 until October, Germany actively attacked Russia, as a result of which the latter lost Poland, Western Ukraine, partially the Baltic states and Western Belarus. During this German offensive, the Russian Empire lost 850 thousand people and 900 thousand soldiers were captured.

Despite the fact that the Russian Empire did not capitulate after these military actions, but went on the defensive, the countries of the Triple Alliance were convinced that Russia would not recover from its losses.

📌 After a successful attack for Germany and the defeat of the Russian army, Bulgaria joined this side - from October 14, 1915.

Military operations on the Southwestern Front in 1915

The German army with the remnants of the surviving Austro-Hungarian army in the spring of 1915 makes the Gorlitsky breakthrough. Russia retreats along the Southwestern Front and loses Galicia, which it only conquered in 1914. On the German side there was not only a significant technical advantage, but also strategic mistakes of the Russian command.

📌 At that time, Germany had 2.5 times more machine guns, 4.5 times more light artillery, and the number of heavy artillery was 40 times greater.

Military operations on the Western Front in 1915

On the Western Front, war broke out between Germany and France. Actions on both sides were sluggish and lack of initiative. Germany focused more on the Eastern Front, while England and France at that time were mobilizing armies in preparation for further actions.

Nicholas II repeatedly turned to France for help, at least to make it more active on the Western Front, but in vain.

Results of 1915:

1. The German plan to destroy the Russian army failed, but the losses of the Russian Empire were colossal, although not huge enough to take Russia out of the war.
2. After 1.5 years of hostilities, neither side has gained a strategic advantage or superiority. The war dragged on.

Military operations in 1916

The 16th year of the 20th century began with Germany losing the strategic initiative. The successful Russian offensive once again plays into the hands of allied France - the Verdun fortress is saved. At this stage, Romania joins the Entente.

Let's take a brief look at what happened in the third year of the war:

• Northwestern Front. From spring to autumn, defensive battles are fought on the western border.
• Southwestern Front. From May to July 1916, the Russian army advances and makes the Brusilov breakthrough. During these actions, Russia recaptures Bukovina and Southern Galicia, destroying the Austro-Hungarian troops.
• Caucasian Front. The Erzurum operation comes to an end and the Trebizond operation begins, as a result of which Erzurum and Trebizond are captured.

Military operations on the Southwestern Front in 1916

In February 1916, German troops decisively advance into France to capture Paris. Defended the capital Verdun - a fortress on the outskirts of Paris. It was to Verdun that Germany went. 2 million people died in that battle, and it lasted until the very end of 1916.

📌 Considering how much time was spent capturing the Verdun fortress, and how many people died, those battles were called the “Verdun Meat Grinder”. France managed to survive, but only because Russia came to its aid.

Russian troops had been actively advancing along the Southwestern Front since May 1916. This offensive went down in history as the Brusilov breakthrough, since General Brusilov was in command. The offensive lasted 2 months.

The actual breakthrough occurred on June 5 in Bukovina. The Russian army not only broke through the defenses, but also advanced 120 km inland. The losses of the German and Austro-Hungarian armies in that breakthrough amounted to 1.5 million people - wounded and prisoners in total. The Russian offensive was stopped only after the transfer of additional German divisions, which at that time were located near Verdun and in Italy.

Having entered the war on the side of the Entente, Romania was unable to resist the German army. Germany quickly dealt with the Romanian troops, inflicting a serious defeat on them. As a result, Russia has 2 thousand km of additional front, which means additional losses.

Results of 1916:

1. The strategic initiative was on the side of the Entente.
2. France re-defended Paris from attack, retaining the fortress of Verdun. But, like the first time, this happened thanks to the help of the Russian Empire.
3. In the third year of the war, Romania joined the Entente, but Germany quickly destroyed its army.
4. A significant achievement of the Russian Empire this year was the Brusilov breakthrough.

Military operations in 1917

The year 1917 was fatal for the Russian Empire. On all fronts, Russian troops carry out unsuccessful operations: Germany captures Riga, and then the Moonsund archipelago in the Baltic. The Russian army is demoralized, and popular unrest is directed towards peace. Changes are ripe within the country - on November 20 (December 3) the Bolsheviks seize power and negotiate for peace. As a result of these negotiations, the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty was signed on March 3, 1918.

Armored Train in the Carpathians (New York Public Library Archives)

In both Germany and Russia, the economic situation worsened due to the war in 1917. For example, in the Russian Empire, during the first 3 years of the war, food prices increased 4–5 times. A dissatisfied people, a grueling war, great human losses - all this served as fertile ground for the revolutionaries, who hastened to take advantage of the moment to seize power. A similar picture emerged in Germany.

As for the balance of power in the First World War, the position of the Triple Alliance was seriously weakened: Germany could no longer fight on two fronts, and then the United States entered the war.

The end of the First World War for the Russian Empire

In the spring of 1917, Germany tried to carry out an offensive on the Western Front, but the Provisional Government in Russia, trying to fulfill the agreements signed by the Russian Empire, sent its troops to Lvov on the offensive.

Once again, the allies are saved, but the Russian army is suffering crushing losses step by step - the provisions are meager, the uniforms and provisions for the soldiers leave much to be desired, but even in such circumstances, the Russian troops are trying to move forward. Meanwhile, Russia's allies are not actively participating or providing the necessary assistance.

On July 6, when Germany launched a counteroffensive, 150 thousand Russian soldiers died. The front collapsed, and the Russian army ceased to exist. Russia had nothing and no one else to fight with.

In such conditions, the Bolsheviks, having seized power in the country in October 1917, signed the decree “On Peace”, thereby leaving the war, and already in 1918, on March 3, the Brest-Litovsk Treaty was signed, according to which Russia:

• makes peace with Austria-Hungary, Germany and Turkey;
• renounces claims to Poland, Ukraine, the Baltic states, Finland and part of Belarus;
• inferior to Batum, Ardahan and Kars to Turkey.

Having entered the First World War, the Russian Empire:

• ceased to exist as a power, giving power to the Bolsheviks;
• lost 1 million sq. m of territory;
• lost a quarter of the population;
• seriously weakened in the agricultural sector and in the coal/metallurgical industry.

Military operations in 1918

With the Eastern Front gone, Germany could no longer be split into two directions. In the spring, she headed to the Western Front, but achieved no success there. It became obvious that she needed a break.

Decisive events occurred in the fall of 1918, when the United States and the Entente countries attacked the German army, displacing it from the territories of France and Belgium. Already in October, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey concluded a truce with the Entente powers and now Germany found itself in complete isolation. The Triple Alliance capitulated and, like the events in Russia, fertile ground for revolution was formed in Germany, which occurred on November 9, 1918 - Emperor Wilhelm II was overthrown.

War heroes and their exploits

A.A. Brusilov (1853-1926). He commanded the Southwestern Front and carried out a successful operation, which was later called the Brusilov breakthrough. The army of military leader Brusilov forced the enemy to think from which side the main blow was being delivered. The tactic of simultaneous attacks in several directions worked in four cases at once. In 3 days, more than 100 thousand people were captured. Over the entire summer, the Russian army took territory from the Germans and Austro-Hungarians all the way to the Carpathians.

M.V. Alekseev (1857 – 1918). Infantry general and chief of staff of the Russian army on the Southwestern Front. He led the largest operations, leading the Russian army.

Kozma Kryuchkov- the first person to receive the St. George Cross in the First World War. He served in the Don Cossack Regiment and, with other comrades, once met a patrol of German cavalrymen. Of the 22 enemies, he personally killed ten, among whom was an officer. He himself received 16 wounds. His name is not so well known, because in 1919 Kryuchkov gave his life in battles with the Bolsheviks, serving in the ranks of the White Army.

The St. George Cross was also received by Vasily Chapaev, Georgy Zhukov, Konstantin Rokossovsky, Rodion Malinovsky.

A.I. Denikin (1872 – 1947). Military leader and general of the First World War. He was the commander of the “iron brigade”, which distinguished itself in battles more than once.

P.N. Nesterov (1887 – 1914). Russian pilot who invented the aerial loop named after him. He died in 1914, in battle, after ramming an enemy airplane.

End of the First World War

The First World War ended on November 11, 1918, when Germany signed its surrender. In the Compiègne forest at the Retord station, near Paris, the French Marshal Foch accepted the surrender of the defeated power. As a result, Germany:

• admitted defeat in the war;
• pledged to return Alsace and Lorraine, as well as the Saar coal basin to France;
• abandoned all her colonies;
• transferred an eighth of its territories to its neighbors.

In addition, the signed surrender required that:

• Entente troops were stationed on the left bank of the Rhine for 15 years;
• until May 1921, Germany had to pay the Entente powers (except Russia) 20 billion marks;
• for 30 years, Germany was obliged to pay reparations, the amount of which the victorious countries could change during these 30 years;
• Germany did not have the right to form an army of more than 100 thousand people, while the army itself must be voluntary for citizens.

All these conditions were so humiliating for Germany that they actually deprived it of its independence, making it an obedient puppet in the hands of other powers.

Results of the First World War

World War I involved 14 major countries and a total of 38 powers in total. This meant that during the 4 years of the war, 1 billion people or 62% of the planet's population were involved. During the entire war, 74 million people were mobilized, of whom 10 million were killed and 20 million were injured.

The political map of Europe has been redrawn:

• New states appeared, such as: Lithuania, Poland, Latvia, Finland, Estonia, Albania.
• Austria-Hungary ceased to exist, splitting into 3 independent states: Austria, Hungary and Czechoslovakia.
• The borders of France, Italy, Greece and Romania expanded.

The losing countries that lost land were Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, Bulgaria and Türkiye. During the war, 4 empires ceased to exist: Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman.

So, it was the First World War 1914 - 1918: causes, stages, results briefly and in pictures. We looked at the years - the beginning and end of the battles (including separately for Russia), who won and how many people died (a card index of countries' losses in the table), and also found out who the war heroes were and their exploits. Do you have any questions? Ask them in the comments.

Sources

• Ardashev A.N. The Great Trench War. Positional massacre of the First World War
• Pereslegin S.B. First World War. War between Realities
• Basil Liddell Hart. History of the First World War
• Evgeniy Belash. Myths of the First World War
• Anatoly Utkin. World War I
• Badak A.N. The World History. Volume 19

History of modern times. Cheat sheet Alekseev Viktor Sergeevich

92. RESULTS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR

The First World War led to serious changes in the economic situation of the entire colonial world, disrupting the international trade relations that had developed before the war. Since the import of industrial products from the metropolitan countries was reduced, colonies and dependent countries were able to establish the production of many goods that were previously imported from outside, and this entailed a more accelerated development of national capitalism. As a result of the war, great damage was caused to the agriculture of the colonies and dependent countries.

During the First World War, the anti-war movement of workers intensified in the countries participating in the hostilities, which by the end of the war grew into a revolutionary one. Further deterioration of the situation of the working masses led to a revolutionary explosion - first in Russia in February and October 1917, and then in Germany and Hungary in 1918–1919.

There was no unity among the victorious powers on issues of the post-war world order. After the end of the war, France turned out to be the most powerful militarily. At the heart of her program for redividing the world was the desire to weaken Germany as much as possible. France sought to move the German western border to the Rhine, demanded from Germany a large sum in compensation for damage caused by the war (reparations), reduction and limitation of the German armed forces. The program for the post-war world order put forward by France also included colonial claims to some German colonies in Africa, to part of the Asia Minor territories of the former Ottoman Empire. But the debt on war loans to the United States and England weakened France’s position, and it had to compromise with its allies when discussing issues of a peaceful settlement. The English plan was based on the need to eliminate the maritime power of Germany and its colonial empire. At the same time, the ruling circles of England sought to maintain a strong imperialist Germany in the center of Europe in order to use it in the struggle against Soviet Russia and the revolutionary movement in Europe, as well as as a counterweight to France. Therefore, there were many contradictions in the British peace program. The implementation of the English plan for redividing the world was also difficult due to the large debt of England to the United States of America for the supply of weapons and goods during the war. Only the United States emerged from the war financially absolutely independently, and economic development surpassed all countries in the world. Japan, Italy, Poland and Romania also made aggressive demands.

The peace conference opened in Paris on January 18, 1919. It was attended by 27 states belonging to the victors’ camp. Soviet Russia was deprived of the opportunity to participate in this conference. At the Paris Peace Conference, the issue of creating the League of Nations was resolved, designed to ensure universal peace by resolving emerging conflicts. The permanent members of the Council of the League of Nations were the five main victorious powers: the USA, England, France, Italy and Japan, and the four non-permanent members were subject to election by the Assembly from among other countries that were members of the League of Nations. The Charter of the League of Nations was signed by representatives of 45 states. The states of the German bloc and Soviet Russia were not allowed into it. Under the influence of the anti-war sentiments of the popular masses, the Paris Conference included an article in the Charter of the League of Nations that provided for economic sanctions and collective military action by members of the League of Nations against the state that committed aggression. In 1921, the League Council decided to counter the aggressor only with economic sanctions.

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