1 needs and motives in human behavior. Needs and motives: definition and fundamentals of psychology

Needs and motives

Determining needs

Needs - subjective phenomena that encourage activity and are a reflection of the body’s need for something. The whole variety of needs can be reduced to two main classes:

• biological (vital)
• informational (underlying social needs).

Biological needs are easily and quickly satisfied. The regulatory function of biological needs is limited, since they determine behavior in relatively short periods of time during which needs are satisfied. If an animal or a person acted under the influence of only these needs, then their activity would be very limited.

Information needs (these include both cognitive and social) are unsatisfiable or significantly less satiable compared to biological needs. Therefore, their regulatory function in relation to human behavior is unlimited.

On the question of the origin of needs.

K.K. Platonov believes that phylo- and ontogenetically needs arise along with emotions. An infant has only needs for food, oxygen, warmth and rest. As the body matures, a person develops new, directly biologically determined needs. Thus, the need for rest is supplemented by a periodically appearing need for movement, then the need for play, cognition, and work. During the maturation of the endocrine glands, sexual desire appears. aging of the body leads to a weakening of not only the sexual need, but also the need for movement, cognition, etc.

Analyzing the path of development of human needs, A.N. Leontyev comes to schematic diagram: first a person acts to satisfy his vital needs, and then satisfies his vital needs in order to act. The development of needs is associated with the development of their substantive content, that is, specific motives for human activity.

Literature

1. Dzhidaryan I.A. About the place of needs, emotions, feelings in personal motivation. //Theoretical problems of personality psychology. /Ed. E.V. Shorokhova. - M.: Science, 1974. P.145-169
2. Leontyev A.N. Activity. consciousness . Personality. - M.: MSU, 1975.
3. Platonov K.K. System of psychology and theory of reflection. - M.: Nauka, 1982.
4. Rubinshtein S.L. Fundamentals of general psychology. - M., 1940.

Determination of motive.

Motive is an incentive to action. Thus, J. Godefroy defines the motive as "a consideration on which the subject must act" .

H. Heckhausen, defining the motive, points to "dynamic" moment of direction of action “to certain goal states, which, regardless of their specificity, always contain a dynamic moment and which the subject strives to achieve, no matter what various means and paths lead to this”. In other words, motive is understood as "the desired target state within the framework of the relationship" individual - environment " .

If, by analyzing needs, a person gives an answer to the question of why he acts or does not act in a certain way, then when analyzing motives, an answer is given to the question "For what?" .

According to A.N. Leontiev, the genetic basis for human activity is the discrepancy between motives and goals. Unlike goals, motives are not actually recognized by the subject. At the same time, they find their mental reflection in the form emotional coloring actions (that is, they give the action personal meaning).

The development of human activity leads to a bifurcation of the functions of motives. Some motives, stimulating activity, give it personal meaning (meaning-forming motives), while others, acting as motivating factors, are deprived of meaning-forming functions (stimulus motives).

Human activity is guided not by one motive, but by their combination. In this case, one can distinguish internal motives and external motives. Internal motives are based on a person’s needs, emotions, and interests. External motives include goals emanating from the situation (Environmental factors). The set of internal and external motives is organized in a certain way and constitutes the motivational sphere of the individual. The main relationships characterizing the motivational sphere of the individual are the relationships of the hierarchy of motives.

A. Maslow built a hierarchy of motives according to the degree of their proximity to the satisfaction of vital needs. At the heart of the hierarchy is the need to maintain physiological homeostasis; above – motives of self-preservation; further – confidence, prestige, love. At the top of the hierarchy are cognitive and aesthetic motives leading to the development of abilities and self-actualization of the individual.

Hierarchy of fundamental needs (according to A. Maslow).

• physiological needs (food, water, sleep, etc.);
• need for security (stability, order);
• needs for love and belonging (family, friendship);
• need for respect (self-esteem, recognition);
• the need for self-actualization (development of abilities).

Hierarchical pyramid of needs (according to A. Maslow)

A.N. Leontyev considers this attempt to build a hierarchy unsuccessful. He believes that the hierarchical relationships between motives are relative (relative) and are determined by the emerging connections of the subject’s activity. At the same time, meaning-forming motives always occupy a higher place in the hierarchy of motives.

Needs and motives play an important role in the structure of personality. Needs are partly given by nature, and partly formed during human life - acquired needs. Motives are completely acquired.

When examining needs and motives, consideration will be given to questions:

1. The concept and essence of needs;

2. Theories of needs;

3. The concept and essence of motives;

4. Motivation process;

5. Theories of motivation;

6. Practice motivation.

Need- This is a person’s internal feeling of lack of something.

A need is something from which a person seeks to free himself or acquire. As long as the need exists, it constantly reminds itself of itself and demands satisfaction. People react to needs differently: satisfy, suppress, ignore.

Needs can be divided into two large ones groups: primary and secondary.

Primary are physiological needs. They are congenital, i.e. genetically determined. These are the needs for breathing, food, water, rest, clothing (warmth), safety, etc.

Secondary is psychological needs. They appear and are realized with the experience of human life. These are the needs for affection, respect, success, power, etc. Because people have different backgrounds, their secondary needs vary greatly.

To understand the essence of needs, the mechanisms of their emergence and implementation, psychology operates a number of need theories . The main ones are the theory of hierarchy Maslow's needs, Herzberg's two-factor theory of needs, McClelland's theory of acquired needs. These theories are discussed above in section 2.4.

A person's needs shape his motives.

Motives- this is the internal desire of the individual towards a certain goal, expressed in activity.

The problem of motivation and motives of behavior is one of the core problems in management psychology. How do motives and goals of individual activity arise? What are they? The answers to these questions contain an understanding of the individual and the possibility of successfully influencing him.

The famous American psychologist Dale Carnegie conducted one main idea: “The only way to force a person to do something is to make him want it himself.”

A person's needs and motives are closely related. Needs, mediated by inner world individual, form motives. Motives, in turn, determine human behavior.

The connection between needs, motives and actions is presented in the behavioral motivation model in Figure 3.5.

Figure 3.5 – Behavior motivation model

As a psychological phenomenon, motivation can be considered as an impulse that causes directed activity of the individual.

An important feature of motivation is its positive-negative orientation.

Positive motivation causes an impulse to directly fulfill the need.

Negative motivation, on the contrary, acts as a self-prohibition that inhibits the impulse to realize the need.

For example, being near the subject of one’s attraction causes positive motivation in a person. However, in the case of unrequited love, the motivation may be negative.

Motivation can be thought of as process , which consists of five stages. There is no clear distinction between them; they are interconnected and transform into each other. However, to understand the content and logic of motivation, distinguishing these stages is quite justified.

1. Emergence of need. The need manifests itself when a person begins to feel that he is missing something in his life. This phenomenon occurs at a specific time, and it begins to “demand” certain actions from a person. A need encourages an individual to find an opportunity and take some steps to eliminate it (satisfy it).

2. Finding ways to eliminate the need. Once a need has arisen and creates problems for a person, he is forced to react. He is looking for an opportunity to eliminate the need: satisfy, suppress, ignore. He decides what and how he should do to eliminate the need.

3. Carrying out an action. At this stage, a person performs actions that, in his opinion, will eliminate the need. Since the work process has an understanding effect on motivation, adjustments to goals can occur at this stage.

4. Receiving rewards. Having carried out an action, a person either directly receives what he wants (realizes a need), or something that he can exchange for the necessary object. At this stage, it becomes clear to what extent the action taken gave the desired result. Motivation to action is regulated.

5. Eliminate need. It all depends on the degree to which the need is eliminated and the tension is relieved. A person either continues actions to realize the desire, or realizes a new need.

The formation of a desire for something in a person’s inner world is called motivation. It can be carried out both by external influences and by internal motivations of a person.

External influences subject to object motivation is the influence of one person on the motivators of another. Motive is always subjective. From the outside, you can only create motivators that are internally mediated into a motive.

External motivators are divided into: imperative (imperative), advisory (advising), suggestions and manipulation.

Imperative motivators– these are orders, demands, coercions. These influences are perceived by the individual as a goal set before him without the right to choose. Such influence is usually a manifestation of power in professional activities.

Advisory motivators– these are requests, suggestions, advice, beliefs. The individual retains the right to choose. In professional activities, consulting influences from the manager are preferable. They raise the self-esteem of the subordinate and create a favorable atmosphere of work relations.

Suggestions– these are means of psychological influence on the process of motive formation. The influence is carried out through speech and non-speech means of communication. It is distinguished by the persistence of the arguments presented and the uncritical attitude towards them on the part of the addressee. The accepted suggestion becomes an internal attitude of the individual.

There are three forms of suggestion: strong persuasion, pressure and emotional-volitional influence. According to the method of influence, suggestion can be direct (open) and indirect (veiled).

Manipulation- these are hidden from the addressee’s motivation for a certain attitude or action. In this case, it is achieved that the addressee considers the thoughts that arise to be his own, and not “induced” from the outside. Such thoughts act as motivators and lead to the formation of personal motives.

Management psychology attaches special importance to external motivators, which are attractive objects . Objects and people around a person are capable of inducing him to certain thoughts and actions.

Thus, a beautiful landscape attracts people to take walks, a delicious cake “wants to be eaten,” and an interesting person encourages communication.

There are positive and negative impacts attractive objects. Some encourage you to strive for them, while others repel you.

In “The Kreutzer Sonata” L.N. Tolstoy vividly described the effect of an attractive object: “It’s amazing how complete the illusion can be that beauty is good. Beautiful woman says stupid things, you listen and don’t hear stupid things, but hear smart things. She says, does nasty things, and you see something cute. When she doesn’t say anything stupid or nasty, but is simply beautiful, then now you are convinced that she is a miracle how good and moral!”

An attractive object, as a method of influencing the consumer, is actively used in marketing and advertising. Beautiful packaging can significantly increase sales volumes of goods.

Motivation caused by the attractiveness of an object includes such psychological influences as contagion and imitation.

Infection- this is a transfer emotional state one person to another. This is especially clearly manifested in work enthusiasm, in the emotional outbursts of spectators at concerts or stadiums.

Imitation- this is following an example or model. This is the acceptance and reproduction of the external and internal characteristics of other people that are attractive to a given individual. Exist different types imitation: purposeful and involuntary, logical and emotional, internal and external, imitation-fashion and imitation-custom, etc.

Internal influences that cause motivation are goals, ideals, aspirations, and personality orientation. They are based on a person’s worldview, his personal understanding of the meaning of life.

Internal influences are often formed from external influences. If a person mediates external motivators, they turn into internal motives.

You can assess the level of personal needs to achieve success using application test 2.

To understand and explain motives, psychology has a number of theories of motivation.

The main ones are Vroom's expectancy theory, Adams' theory of justice, reinforcement theory, and Porter-Lawler's matching model. The first three theories are discussed in detail in section 2.4. Let's look at the fourth one.

Compliance model Porter-Lawler is a synthesis of expectancy theory and equity theory. In this joint model, the authors use five variables:

– spent on performing work efforts;

- perception significance work completed;

– received results from the work performed;

– reward for the work performed;

- degree satisfaction from the work completed.

The compliance model is adequate to the model of behavioral motivation, which is presented above in Figure 3.5.

According to this model, the results achieved depend on the efforts made by a person, his abilities and characteristics, as well as his awareness of his role. The level of effort exerted will be determined by the value of the reward and the degree to which effort and reward match. A person satisfies his needs by rewarding the results achieved.

If an employee believes that his efforts and rewards for them do not correspond to each other, this will be perceived as unfair. The employee will either perform worse or seek fair remuneration.

One of the most important provisions of the model is that productive work leads to personal satisfaction. This is exactly the opposite of what most managers think about this. They believe that satisfaction leads to better performance at work or, to put it another way, that more satisfied workers perform better. Porter and Lawler, on the other hand, believe that a sense of accomplishment leads to satisfaction and increases productivity.

When implementing practical approach A number of problems arise in the motivation of the individual. Knowledge of the logic of the motivation process does not provide significant advantages in managing this process. It is necessary not only to understand, but also to be able to practically overcome the problems and complexities of the internal process of forming motives in an employee.

You can note three factors, which complicate and make unclear the process of practical deployment of motivation: secrecy, variability and uniqueness.

Stealth– this is not the evidence of a person’s motives. One can assume and guess about what motives influence a person’s actions. However, it is almost impossible to “calculate” them explicitly.

Management psychology emphasizes that understanding motives provides the key to knowledge of personality. If a manager understands what motivates his subordinate, he will be able to influence him effectively.

Variability– this is the dynamism of a person’s motives. The nature of the motivational process depends on what needs initiate it. However, the needs themselves are in a complex, unstable interaction with each other. Often they contradict each other, or, on the contrary, reinforce each other’s actions. In this case, the general vector of motivation can change over time, changing the direction and nature of the action.

Uniqueness– this is individuality, originality, the dissimilarity of the motives of each person. The inner world of a person is unique. Therefore, the emergence of internal motives and the mediation of external motivators is always individual.

Management psychology attaches particular importance to practical human labor motivation . Why do people work? Why do some people do easy work and remain dissatisfied? Why do others get satisfaction from difficult and intense work? What makes you want to work? These and many other questions arise in the process of practical personnel management.

In the domestic economy, very little attention has been paid to this problem for decades. The technocratic approach and administrative style dominated production. The role of workers was relegated to the background. This led to a narrowing of labor motivation, alienation of workers from production, and a drop in labor productivity.

Data from a comparative study on the level of labor motivation in different countries show the following. Work is considered the main task of life: in the USA - 50% of the population, in Sweden - 45%, in Germany - 30%. In the CIS countries this figure does not exceed 10%.

Only by knowing what motivates a person, what motivates him to a certain activity, what motives lie at the basis of his actions and actions, it is possible to create an effective system of labor incentives, which will turn into internal motivation of employees. Managers must know their subordinates and their needs. requests and goals that determine motives. This will ensure successful management of both individual subordinates and entire teams.

In global management practice over the past decades, a number of modern methods of labor motivation . They are discussed in detail in section 2.4.

Motivation is the key to human behavior. There are five psychological rules, which will help in practical management of individual motivation.

1. Positive reinforcement. This is an encouraging reaction from a manager to the successful actions of a subordinate. Positive reinforcement is more effective and constructive than negative reinforcement; it has a beneficial effect on the psychological climate in the team. Positive reinforcement is especially effective over the long term.

2. Urgency of reinforcement. Encouragement (reinforcement) must be immediate and specific (linked to action). The shorter the time interval between an action and a public positive reaction to it from management, the greater the effect.

3. Unpredictability of rewards. If rewards are regular and predictable, employees will get used to them. They begin to be perceived not as encouragement, but as the norm. At the same time, irregular and unexpected rewards stimulate better.

4. Intermediate goals. The path to your goal can be long and tiring. Therefore, from a psychological point of view, it is advisable to establish stages (intervals) of movement towards the goal, and encourage the implementation of each of them.

5. Feeling of freedom. An employee must feel freedom in his professional actions. He should be given a production task, and the choice of ways to solve it should be left to him. Excessive control and petty supervision hinder the initiative of employees.

So, a person’s actions are determined by the needs that form the internal motives of his behavior. Knowing the needs and motives of an individual is the key to successfully influencing (managing) him.

The theory and practice of management has modern methods of stimulation and motivation and rules for effective management of individual motivation.

Volitional sphere of personality

Will is an important component in the structure of personality. It refers to those components of the structure that are not given by nature, but are completely formed in the process of human life. Will is considered as a person’s ability to act to achieve a consciously set goal.

As part of the study of the volitional sphere of personality, four question:

1. Provisions on personal development;

2. Stages of volitional development;

3. Theories of volitional behavior;

4. The mechanism of volitional action.

Psychologists (L. Vygotsky and others) build the process of personality development on three main provisions :

about the individual’s activity;

about individual mediation of social relations;

about becoming oneself through others.

Individual activity is the process of mental and vital participation of the individual in internal processes and external events. Activity is considered in various types of activities. Special attention is given to internal mental processes personality. And the main one of these processes is development of will.

Activity can be considered as possible (free) and prescribed (forced). In free activity, its bearer is the individual himself. At the same time, he develops his inner world through the algorithmization of his own behavior, the gradual formation personal qualities, development of self-awareness.

Activity is directed by the individual to certain points. In the initiative of the individual, its orientation, individual activity is realized, not “normalized” by society. This activity is very essential for the development of personality.

Mediating social relations– this is a personal perception and appropriation by an individual of the experience of interactions in society. In the course of his life, an individual comes into contact with other people, forming his own style of communication and interaction.

A person, during his life in society, plays different social roles: son-daughter, schoolchild, student, father-mother, pedestrian, driver, employee, etc. However, in each of his roles he is original and unique.

Creating your personal experience public relations and execution social roles, the individual relies on many personality traits. However, among the most important in this series is will. Through it, the individual is built in the mediation of social experience.

Becoming yourself through others lies in the phenomenon of “mirror representation”. It means that the formation of personality occurs through a symmetrical reflection of a person’s personality in the inner world of other people.

Lev Vygotsky presents the role of a mirror reflection of the inner world as follows: “The personality becomes for itself what it is in itself, through what it presents to others.”

Personality can be characterized in two ways:

– through the representation of other people in her inner world;

– as a subject of activity in the life of other people.

Representation in the inner world of a person, other people depend on his perception of others. Every person’s consciousness and memory contains many images of people he knows. Although all these people are different, the perception of them by a given individual is subjective. A kind and sympathetic person notices more good things in the people around him. Conversely, a bad person sees more negative traits in other people.

How subject of activity Each person evokes certain responses in the thoughts and activities of other people. In other words, the behavior and consciousness of some significantly influences the formation of others. There is an effect of mediation and appropriation by the individual of someone else’s experience. However, the experience of others is perceived by the individual selectively. The only thing that matters is what is perceived by a person as personally significant to him. The rest is virtually unnoticed.

We can talk about personality development in connection with the level of the individual’s volitional environment. In other words, it is advisable to single out the volitional development of personality as an independent process.

Psychologists distinguish three successive stages of volitional development:

voluntary behavior;

intellectual activity;

post-voluntary behavior (Figure 3.6).

Figure 3.6 – Stages of volitional development

Voluntary behavior associated with the realization of natural (physiological) needs - food, sleep, safety, clothing, housing. The individual overcomes the obstacles that arise in the way of satisfying natural needs. In the process of overcoming obstacles, will manifests itself and develops.

Intellectual activity associated with human mental activity. In the process of mental activity in the inner world of an individual, a struggle of equivalent but oppositely directed affective tendencies occurs.

Affective tendencies in a person’s mental activity are unusual, artificially caused thoughts. The challenge is carried out by a special effort of will.

The individual considers options for action: weighs, evaluates, imagines the consequences. Finally, he makes a decision - adopts a plan of action: creates an intention, sets goals, and determines specific ways to achieve them.

Intellectual activity, as the second stage of volitional development, can be figuratively called “the period of a mnemonic volitional act.” Volitional behavior is carried out through the individual’s conscious regulation of his motivational sphere. As a result, a weaker, but more significant motive for a person receives
additional strength by volitional influence.

Post-voluntary behavior associated with the individual’s mediation of ways to organize actions and volitional efforts. This is the third and final stage of volitional development.

Volitional actions at the third stage have sufficient motivating force to commit an act. Moreover, a volitional act must be performed without the participation of conscious self-regulation, in the subconscious, that is, involuntarily or post-voluntarily.

So, a responsible student goes to class in the morning, even if he hasn’t had enough sleep. At the same time, he does not require any special volitional efforts. He has already developed the attitude that classes are an obligatory element that does not allow doubt. For a careless student, getting up is difficult every time. By the way, later he will be the same irresponsible worker.

Thus, in the development of will there are stages that are realized with increasing intensity. In the inner world of a person, a psychological reality is created, which constitutes his integral essence. It is the content of life, the regulator of individual behavior.

Psychological reality - motivation - acts as the inner essence of a person, through which all external influences are refracted. As a result, the developing motivated sphere of the individual begins to act as a factor in the further general (psychological) development of the individual.

The affective-need sphere of personality develops from simple to complex. Initial immediate (physiological) needs, mediated by socially acquired experience, enter into certain connections in the inner world of the individual. As a result, new personality traits emerge. They are based on both cognitive (knowledge-based) and affective (artificially induced) components. This contributes to the development of such a complex personality trait - the volitional sphere.

More simple personal traits require external motivating force for their development. Unlike them, the will has its own driving force. The will itself influences the conscious setting of personal goals, the formation of beliefs and moral feelings of the individual, and the creation of conscious needs of the individual. All of these phenomena taken together characterize the personality.

Psychology considers two theories of volitional behavior personality: theory of reflexes and theory of skills and reactions.

Reflex theory divides human behavior into two stages:

instinctive - unconditioned reflexes;

acquired – conditioned reflexes.

The first stage can be carried out with an underdeveloped will. The second stage requires significant volitional development.

Theory of skills and reactions devoted to further development second stage, i.e. acquired behavior. In it, this theory distinguishes two stages: the acquisition of stable skills and the emergence of intellectual reactions. Skills arise as conditioned reflexes are reinforced in behavior.

Reactions can be emotional and intellectual. The first are associated with a sharp increase in emotions in response to external influences or one’s own thoughts. The intensity of reactions depends on the emotional stability of the individual, as well as the significance of the cause of excitement for her.

Intellectual reactions arise as a response to influence in the form of an image or symbol. This is a kind of “short circuit” in the individual’s psyche. This is an explosive reaction, fast and complex. However, its direction is predictable and depends on the values ​​and motives of the individual. And the intensity of the reaction, its effectiveness are associated with the volitional sphere of the individual.

Mechanism of volitional action associated with overcoming the contradiction between the desire of the individual and his perceived duty. Desire is usually associated with the natural needs of the individual. A person involuntarily strives for the pleasant and useful, and avoids the unpleasant and difficult.

A person’s sense of duty manifests itself at four levels:

– duty to society and country;

– duty to colleagues at work, production team;

– duty to close circle, relatives and friends;

- a person's duty to himself.

Duty is closely related to responsibility. The sense of duty is recognized and mediated in the inner world of the individual. After this, it turns into a conscious necessity. Subsequently, the sense of duty acts as a trigger for volitional action.

In a clash between desire and duty in the inner world of a person, the natural (physiological) advantage is on the side of the former. A person wants to receive what is pleasant and avoid what is unpleasant. However, will is on the side of duty. It reinforces the duty motivators so that they win. As a result, a strong-willed person acts not according to his primary desires, but according to a conscious need.

A person carries out volitional regulation of his behavior on the basis of conscious choice. An individual is constantly faced with a choice in his thoughts and actions. And the nature of this choice is determined by the will. But is man free in his own will?

Willpower and attention can be measured by the Appendix 3 test.

free will there is an awareness of the situation and the need for a choice determined by the motive. Freedom cannot be independent of motives. The motives for a conscientious citizen and a strong-willed person are duty and responsibility.

In other words, we can say that freedom is a conscious necessity, which is very strong in a strong-willed person.

Thus, the ancient Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus (VI century BC) in his famous aphorisms argued: “What is stronger than anything in the world? - Necessity".

So, Psychology builds the process of personality development on three main principles: about the activity of the individual; about individual mediation of social relations; about becoming oneself through others.

Personality formation is impossible without developed will. In the volitional development of personality, three successive stages are distinguished: voluntary behavior; intellectual activity; post-voluntary behavior.

The volitional behavior of an individual is explained by two theories: reflexes, skills and reactions.

The mechanism of volitional behavior acts in the direction of overcoming the contradictions between the natural desires of the individual and his perceived duty. A person involuntarily strives for what is pleasant and useful, and avoids the unpleasant, difficult, and painful. A person’s sense of duty manifests itself at four levels: to society; in front of colleagues; in front of loved ones; in front of yourself.

Personal abilities

The topic of abilities is very relevant for management psychology. If a person is assigned work according to his abilities, the benefit is double. First, the job will be done diligently and professionally. Secondly, a person will receive satisfaction from his activities.

As part of the study of the problem of abilities, the following will be considered: questions:

1. The concept and essence of abilities;

2. Theories of abilities;

3. Types of abilities;

4. Ability levels;

5. Abilities and skill;

6. Diagnostics of abilities.

The concept of human abilities developed in connection with the general course of development of human thought. It has long been the subject of philosophical consideration. Only in the second half of the 19th century did empirical and then theoretical (psychological) studies of human abilities emerge.

A person’s abilities are not given directly in his introspections and experiences. One can only indirectly conclude about them by correlating the level of mastery of an activity by one person in comparison with other people. In this case, a person’s living conditions and education have a significant impact.

Capabilities– these are human properties on which the success of mastering certain types of activity depends.

A capable person, all other things being equal (preparedness, time, effort), gets maximum results compared to less capable people. The high achievements of a capable person are the results of compliance of the complex of his neuropsychic properties with the requirements of his activity.

Every activity is complex and multifaceted. It makes various demands on the mental properties and physical capabilities of a person. If the existing set of personality traits meets these requirements, then the person is able to carry out activities successfully and at a high level. Therefore, the ability cannot be reduced to one property - good color discrimination, sense of proportion, ear for music, etc. Ability is always a synthesis of several innate personality properties.

There are many approaches to understanding the nature and essence of abilities. There were four main ability theories .

1. Theory of heredity. According to it, the presence of abilities depends entirely on the inherited genetic fund.

Thus, Galton in the 19th century tried to substantiate the heredity of talent by analyzing the biographical data of outstanding figures. Continuing his research, Cots determined the degree of giftedness by the amount of space allocated in encyclopedic dictionaries famous people. According to Galton-Cotes, talent is inherited, so representatives of famous families have outstanding abilities.

Life refutes claims about the hereditary predetermination of abilities. Therefore, the following theory of abilities takes a different position.

2. Theory of chance. She views the emergence of abilities in a competitive person as an element of unpredictability.

An objective analysis of the biographies of outstanding people allowed us to draw three conclusions. First, the overwhelming majority of outstanding people came from families that did not show special talents. The second conclusion is that the children, grandchildren and great-grandchildren of the overwhelming majority of famous people did not show outstanding talents. The third conclusion is that dynastic high abilities are an exception.

Thus, the innate abilities of a particular person are random and unpredictable.

3. Theory of environment and education. According to this theory, abilities are not given by nature, but are shaped by life experiences. This requires a special environment and targeted education and training.

Thus, Helvetius in the 18th century proclaimed that through special education even genius can be formed. IN modern times American scientist W. Ashby argues that abilities, and even genius, are determined by acquired qualities. In particular, what program of intellectual activity accompanied a person’s life in childhood and youth, as well as his ability to work.

At first glance, this theory seems to express faith in human capabilities. It does not set boundaries for the development of the human personality. However, this theory faces serious scientific objections.

Life observations and special scientific research indicate that the natural prerequisites for abilities cannot be denied. In a number of activities they are particularly important. Therefore, in an unfavorable environment, one person can show greater abilities than another in a favorable environment.

So, the following situation is common. Brothers and sisters raised in the same family and in equal social conditions show sharp differences in abilities. Moreover, they exhibit different rates of development and develop completely different characters.

Psychologists and physiologists note individual characteristics in the anatomical organization of the brain. This is reflected in its functions. In addition, congenital typological features of nervous activity were discovered. This affects the manifestation and development of abilities.

4. Theory of equality. Its supporters claim that all people are initially equal in their abilities. Discrepancies begin after birth, during life experiences.

However, a number of psychologists and sociologists note not only the fallacy of this theory. It is unfair and unnatural. If people are born different, then their artificial “leveling” is inhumane. Social suppression of a person’s existing abilities (so that he is “like everyone else”) breaks his psyche.

Perceiving all people as equal in ability brings great harm to society. After all, special abilities can serve not only their owner, but also other people. Talented and brilliant people are the wealth and pride of any nation.

IN modern world The problem of “brain drain” is acute. Economically developed (rich) countries lure talented people from poor and developing countries. These people are provided good conditions for work, high standard of living. And they leave their homeland forever. But they could do a lot for the development of their country, and not enrich the already rich.

Summarizing the four considered theories of ability, it should be noted that only the second of them is completely correct. One can partially admit that the third is right. Any abilities can be developed, but not formed from the beginning. A person with a healthy psyche contains, at least to a small extent, a wide variety of abilities. This allows you to grow something even from a weak sprout.

For example, you can teach how to play musical instrument even a person without abilities. Of course, this will require a lot of effort. In addition, the level of musical skill will be low. But the person will still play.

Abilities as personality traits can manifest themselves in different areas of their activities. This allows us to talk about different types of abilities .

Need is a state of need in objective conditions, objects, objects, without which the development and existence of living organisms and their life activities is impossible. A need is considered as a special mental state of an individual, “tension”, “dissatisfaction”, “discomfort” felt or recognized by him, as a reflection in the human psyche of a discrepancy between the internal and external conditions of activity. Needs are the sources of human activity.

The starting point for their formation is the social conditioning of a person’s position in the environment. The most basic human needs are drives, which are closest to instincts. According to the source of formation, origin, all needs are divided into biological (for food, housing, etc.) and social - the needs of the physical and social existence of people. However, human biological needs are transformed by his life in society and are of a social nature; they manifest and develop differently than in animals. Biological needs are enduring in nature and often cyclical. Klevin, in his work “Intention, will and need” (1926), identified quasi-needs, by which he understood derivative and intermediate needs that are more transitory in nature and are often expressed in intentions.

In the course of the development of human society, not only does the range of biological needs expand and qualitatively change, but specifically human - social needs - constantly arise. The essential features of human needs are the objectivity of origin, their historical nature, dependence on practical activity, and social conditioning. Human needs are diverse: preservation of the species and the need for activity; the need for meaning in life and the need for freedom, work, knowledge, communication.

Failure to satisfy a person’s vital needs inhibits the emergence and development of other needs and sometimes reduces a person’s activity or changes the direction of this activity. A hungry person is less capable of creativity; one who does not receive satisfaction from his work and cannot satisfy his needs for creativity finds a substitute activity in eating, has various hobbies that are compensatory in nature. Prolonged unsatisfaction of a person's vital needs leads to a state of frustration. Frustration (Latin - futile expectation, deception) is a mental state filled with anxiety, annoyance, frustration, internal discomfort, general tension, which arises if the events that a person expected do not occur, hopes are not fulfilled, obstacles arise on the way to goals. Frustration occurs when a person can neither achieve a goal nor give up on it. A related concept is threat or danger.

However, in a situation of danger, trouble only threatens, but in a situation of frustration it already exists. Therefore, danger increases the mobilizing mental state aimed at the future, and frustration increases the state focused on the present and past.

A person can assess the causes of frustration as external (difficult, unresolved task, unfavorable conditions, bad assistants and employees) and internal (poorly prepared to complete the task, weak-willed, etc.). However, its causes are more often seen, especially by young children, in external circumstances. Frustration is a factor that enhances motivation when its causes are considered by a person to be removable. There is increased emotional arousal and a strong desire to destroy obstacles. This natural mechanism, which triggers energy reserves in case of interference in achieving a goal, is socially progressive and individually beneficial in the better adaptation and functioning of both people and animals. With persistent, repeated failures and complete loss of hope for success, motivation drops and then a new motive may appear.

The immediate psychological consequences of frustration are excitement, fantasy, apathy, destructiveness, despair. Typical reactions to frustration are aggression (directed at others or at oneself), a decrease in the value of an unattainable object (the desire to relieve oneself of the blame for failure, to present events in a favorable light for oneself), etc. Frustration is successfully studied using the technique of insoluble problems, as well as interrupted action techniques. As a result of continued failures, an accumulation of frustration may occur, which, in turn, leads to psychosomatic disorders (ulcers, allergies, asthma, stuttering) and fixed reactions. The latter often arise under the influence of punishment. A frequent adaptation to frustration is replacement activity. If a child is forbidden to build a house from construction kit parts because the time for rest and play is over, he will draw it even in the air. The real way out of this state is a conscious retreat, which is tantamount to restraint; the unconscious is expressed in the suppression of unwanted and unrealizable hopes and aspirations, which sometimes live and persist in a person’s dreams.

In general, frustration is one of the components of stress, a mental state of high tension, which is caused by unexpected changes, excessive demands on a person over which he has no control: disaster, illness, betrayal, death of loved ones and other unusual situations that cause mental shock.

Motive is an incentive. This concept often denotes such psychological phenomena as intention, desire, desire, design, hunting, thirst, fear, etc., i.e. which reflect the presence in the human psyche of a certain readiness that directs towards a specific Goal. Motivation is closely related to the needs of a Person, since it appears when a need arises, a lack of something, it exists First stage mental and physical activity. Motivation is an incentive to activity by a certain motive, the process of choosing the basis for a certain direction of action.

A motive is a hypothetical construct, a concept that is used to explain individual differences in activities carried out under identical conditions. Motivation processes have a direction - to achieve or avoid a goal, to carry out a certain activity or to abstain from it; accompanied by experiences, positive or negative emotions (joy, satisfaction, relief, fear, suffering). There is a certain psychophysiological tension, i.e. The processes are accompanied by states of excitement, agitation, influx or loss of strength.

Purpose and motive are not the same. So, for example, a person may have a goal - to change his job, but the motives may be different: to improve his position; avoid future troubles; bring your place of work closer to your place of residence; work close to friends, etc.

Some motives may not be recognized by a person. In the above example, a person may be guided and consider the main motive to be “working alongside friends,” without realizing the real motive of “avoiding future troubles.” Activity is directed by a variety of motives; We call their totality and the internal process of motivation itself motivation. Motivation is a process of mental regulation that influences the direction of activity and the amount of energy mobilized to perform this activity. Motivation explains the choice between various options actions, different but equally attractive goals. In addition, it is motivation that helps to understand the tenacity and perseverance with which a person carries out his chosen actions and overcomes obstacles on the way to his chosen goal.

The strength and activity of motivation are expressed in the degree of its influence on the direction of activity and its success. Strengthening motivation increases the success of an activity up to a certain limit; with a further increase in motivation, the success of an activity begins to fall. In addition, in solving easy tasks, the best success of activity is achieved with a high level of motivation, and in solving difficult ones - with its low and medium level. A change of motives when a person’s social and life situation changes, the structure of his values ​​is transformed, difficult passage through age stages, and a sudden change of profession often cause a motivational crisis in individuals. The concept of “motivational crisis” describes a situation of change and weakening of motives and is often a characteristic of a certain age period (mainly after 45 years). As research shows, people driven in life by the motive of power always find a sphere for realizing their goals at this late age, while people motivated to achieve find themselves in a more difficult situation and experience the crisis of mid-adulthood much more acutely.

Social motivation. The initial classification of social motives, proposed by G. Murray, combined more than 20 motives (the motive of achievement and the motive of power, the motive of social success and the motive of affiliation (desire for people), the motive of helping, etc.).

Achievement motive as a stable personality characteristic was first identified by G. Murray and was understood as a stable desire to achieve results in work, the desire to do something well and quickly and to achieve a certain level in some matter. Then it was differentiated into two types - the desire to succeed and the desire to avoid failure. It has been noted that success-oriented people prefer tasks of moderate difficulty, as they prefer to take calculated risks; and those motivated to fail choose either easy tasks (with a guarantee of success) or difficult ones (since failure is not perceived as personal failure). The achievement motive shows how much a person strives to improve the level of his capabilities. The system-dynamic model of motivation was developed by M.Sh. Magomed-Eminov. In the motivational process, he identifies the stages of actualization of motivation and goal setting, choice of action; stages of formation and implementation of intentions, as well as the post-implementation stage, where correction of self-esteem and switching are important. M.Sh. Magomed-Eminov, T.V. Kornilova were adapted by many important techniques to measure achievement motivation. There is a well-known method for measuring motivation by H. Schmalt and its computer variants.

In Russian psychology, the study of the achievement motive began with the study of the level of aspirations. It was understood as the level of difficulty of the goal and task that a person chooses. This concept arose in the school of K. Levin. In our country, the first studies of the level of aspirations were carried out by I.M. Laley and V.K. Gerbachevsky in connection with the study of intelligence and personal characteristics. It was found that those who are prone to anxiety and worry have a level of aspirations that is more consistent with their actual intellectual level. Rigid, low-plasticity people, as well as extroverts, are often inadequate in assessing their abilities and tend to overestimate or underestimate their claims. V.K. Gerbachevsky showed that the main factor influencing the dynamics of the level of aspirations is success. The level of aspirations depends on the comparison of one’s results with normative achievements (the results of what is meaningful to a person social group), from self-esteem and personality characteristics. For example, compared to normal people, neurasthenics set higher goals for themselves, while hysterics set minimal goals compared to the average level of their achievements. It is known that unrealistically high or low standards lead to a “self-defeat strategy.” Maximum efficiency corresponds not to the maximum, but to the optimal strength of motivation. Motivational training courses have been developed that help increase activity and initiative, and move from tactics of avoiding failure to tactics of hoping for success. After the training, determination and confidence in the correctness of your decisions, expectations of success, and a balanced level of aspirations increase. The training methodology showed that it is better if during the training period people have failures that are explained by insufficient efforts. They are more useful for overcoming uncertainty and “learned helplessness” than support and constant luck.

There are certain sociocultural differences in achievement motivation. High national achievement motivation is manifested in disproportionately rapid economic development. It was sociocultural differences that prompted scientists to analyze the components of a complex motive for achievement. It has been shown that it is based on at least three more components: the desire for mastery (orientation in difficult work to one's internal standard of excellence), for competition (the desire for competition and leadership), for work (the pleasure of hard work well done) . In the socio-psychological aspect, the motive for achievement can be considered as the motive for social success. According to recent studies, it has the following structure: the desire for fame, prestige, recognition; desire for competition; the desire to achieve in meaningful activities. A study by ML. Kubyshkina showed that the leading characteristics of people with a pronounced motive for social success are great activity and self-confidence, high self-esteem with firm confidence in their charm; At the same time, women value their business qualities more and strive for achievements in meaningful activities, while men value more the qualities necessary for a public figure and strive for recognition and competition. It also turned out that a strong desire for social success contributes to the development in women of properties that are more characteristic of men (dominance, aggressiveness, etc.).

Power motive. Power occurs when someone is able to induce another to do something that that person would never do. One definition denotes power as the potential for influence. Power is seen as the ability of an actor to carry out his will despite the resistance of other people. The power motive is based on the need to feel strong and to demonstrate one’s power in action. We can talk about two different tendencies at the basis of this motive: the desire to acquire power; exercise of power and influence. Sources of power can be: the power of reward (“If you do it, you will receive it”), the power of coercion (“If you don’t do it, it will be bad”), normative power (the official power of an expert, information power, etc.). Individual differences are manifested in the desire to increase the number of sources of power and in the ability to influence the motivational system of other people (a quick and accurate determination of the motivational basis of another person and correlation with one’s sources of power is necessary). A strong motive for power has been found among representatives of those professions whose occupations require them to be good manipulators; these are teachers, priests, psychologists, journalists.

Motives for affiliation and assistance are based on an effective and positive attitude towards people and exclude manipulation. The motive of affiliation is the desire for such contacts with people, including strangers, that imply trust, cooperation, affiliation, and friendship. The purpose of affiliation is a mutual search for acceptance, friendly support and sympathy. Mutual trust is important so that the partner feels that he is being offered an equal relationship, a communication that captivates and enriches both parties. There are two forms of affiliative motive - hope of affiliation and fear of rejection. Best known as measuring tool affiliation questionnaire by A. Mehrabyan (1970).

Help motive, altruistic motives. Altruism is a motive in its own right, which differs from other motives based on personal gain; it is based on love and selfless concern for others, the ability to make free sacrifices for the sake of the group, the need to give and a sense of responsibility. Three-year-old children already have a need to help others. More often, help is provided by those who themselves have received it before, and those who have empathy and the ability to empathize. A study by S.K. Nartova-Bochaver found that the experience of success increases the desire to help other people, while the experience of failure weakens it. It is also known that teaching children altruistic behavior with the help of pictures increases their verbal (in words) altruism, while training in real situations forms stable altruistic motivation, which is higher, the warmer and more friendly the relationship between the child and the teacher. More altruism and mercy are shown towards a dependent person than an independent, pleasant and attractive person, an acquaintance and a person of the same ethnic group.

In conclusion, it should be noted that in certain areas of human activity specific systems of motives are distinguished. So, for example, according to E. Shein, a person, when building his professional career, can be guided by one of eight motives:

Professional competence, to be a master of your craft;

Managing various aspects of your enterprise, a successful manager;

The desire for autonomy and independence from any organizational restrictions;

The desire for security and stability of both the place of work and place of residence;

Serving high goals, helping people;

Solving difficult problems, overcoming obstacles, challenges and struggles;

Integration of lifestyles, balancing family, work, career;

Entrepreneurship, the desire to have your own business.

The predominance of one or another motive can be determined using E. Shein’s “Career Anchors” questionnaire, adapted by V.A. Chiker.

The founder of the psychoanalytic tradition was, as we already know, Z. Freud. One of the central provisions of his theory (Freud Z., 1991, 1992a, 19926) is the belief that any human behavior is at least partially determined by unconscious impulses. The basis of behavioral motivation, according to Freud, is the desire to satisfy innate instincts - the physical needs of the body. The individual strives to reduce stress to a minimum level. And in this regard, Freud’s concept is similar to the behaviorist point of view: the same principle of homeostasis and stress relief. etc.), the energy of instinct can be directed in a different direction: the release of tension can occur through the performance of completely different - not related to instinct - types of activities. Imagine a steam boiler, it has high pressure, and if the steam is not released, it can burst. The valve needs to be opened. If one of the main valves is closed (for example, immediate sexual satisfaction is impossible), you have to use others (politics, creativity, business). This direction of instinctual energy in a different channel - as opposed to direct satisfaction of needs - is called sublimation. The solution to the problem of explaining human behavior, therefore, consists in finding out the reasons for the direction of instinctive energy in one direction or another. psychoanalytic theories a certain essential element of similarity with Freudianism remained: either basic instinct-like experiences, or the unconscious, and even more often - a view of the source of motivation as a struggle of opposite and, in principle, irreconcilable principles (dualism). K. Jung (1986,1993), for example, like Freud, considered the release of tension as the main mechanism of motivation. However, unlike Freud, he believed that the organism strives for self-realization. Society suppresses not only sexual or “bad” impulses, but also healthy aspirations. One of the most famous concepts in Jung's concept is the collective unconscious, which contains the experience of all humanity, the wisdom of the ages, accumulated throughout history and passed on from generation to generation. The collective unconscious is the basis of the individual unconscious, which plays a significant role in the behavior of the individual. Another student and subsequently Freud’s opponent, A. Adler (1995), reasoned approximately as follows. Man is born weak and helpless, experiencing a basic, universal feeling of inferiority. In order to overcome helplessness and feelings of inferiority, the individual strives for superiority and perfection. The pursuit of excellence, not pleasure, according to Adler, is the basic principle of human motivation. K. Horney (Horneu K., 1950) proceeded from a thesis similar to Adler’s about the helplessness of the infant, but drew slightly different conclusions from this generally indisputable position. A helpless baby, in her opinion, seeks safety in a potentially hostile and, than the theories of other psychoanalysts, is focused on considering the social aspects of human behavior. According to Fromm, a person in modern society feels alone, which is a direct result of his release from direct dependence on nature. This loneliness has given rise to the desire to escape from freedom into conformity, dependence and even slavery, but the true goals of man are the desire to find his true “I”, to use the society that he has created, and not to be used by it, to feel connected with others by bonds of brotherhood and love .