The means of modern Russian graphics are. Modern Russian graphics
Graphics as a branch of linguistics.
Principles of Russian graphics.
Transcription and transliteration.
GOST 7.79-2000.
The word "graphics" (Greek grapho - "I write") in Russian is ambiguous. It means: 1. A type of fine art that uses lines and strokes in black and white. 2. Inscriptions of written characters to display sounding speech. 1 In the second meaning, the graph is used in linguistics and has several independent meanings:
Graphics is a set of styles with which oral speech is transmitted in writing and the rules for designating sounds with letters;
Graphics is a system of relationships between letters and sounds in a text (broad interpretation);
Graphics is also called the science itself, which investigates and describes the alpha-sound relationships.
Graphics is another, along with the type of writing and the alphabet, a writing factor endowed with specific functions. Compared with the theory of the alphabet, graphics have their own range of tasks. The alphabet only determines the nomenclature of the signs used in this letter and their basic meanings. Graphics considers the relation of the alphabet to the sound system of a given language. The main issue of graphics is the relationship of the letter to the sound (more precisely, to the phoneme). Graphics defines the general conditions for the use of all letters of the alphabet.
The unit of writing in the chart is called graphemes. The grapheme is the smallest unit of writing, performs a form-and semantic-distinctive function, has corresponding units in the grammar of the language (word, morpheme, syllable, phoneme).
A grapheme is a symbolic unit, because it requires meaning and material expression. The meaning of a grapheme correlates either with the content of the utterance or with its sound, depending on the type of writing. The only possible form of a grapheme is descriptive; this is predetermined by the very essence of writing as a way of graphic fixation of speech. As a sign unit, a grapheme can have a zero exponent. The zero grapheme can be considered the absence of materially expressed graphemes, which is revealed on the basis of functional opposition. For example, in the Russian writing system, one of the ways to indicate the softness of a consonant is to use the letter b, and the hardness of consonants in the same positions is not to use this letter. In this case, we can assume that the hardness of the consonant is indicated by the zero grapheme.
Letters are one of the types of graphemes. A letter and a grapheme are not identical concepts. First, graphemes are not limited to letters. Secondly, a letter is a unit of the alphabet, and a grapheme is an element of a writing system that gets its meaning in context. For example, the modern French writing system is represented by 44 letters of the alphabet and 112 graphemes, of which 44 are simple and are expressed by letters, and 68 are complex - combinations of letters. The English writing system also has a lot of graphemes, which include several letters ( ar, air, high, th). In such cases, combinations of letters, depending on their composition and position in the word, have different sound meanings. The difference between a letter and a grapheme is clearly seen when considering lowercase and uppercase letters. BUT And but- the same letter, but different graphemes, because perform different functions.
The grapheme should not be identified with the phoneme either. A grapheme in a language system can correspond to
One phoneme: but – <а>in the word watermelon;
The set of phonemes: I
–
The combination of a phoneme with a constituent element of another phoneme: I – <’а>in the word crush;
Only a constituent element of a phoneme: b- denotes softness<т>in the word crush;
A semantic, not a sound unit (the hieroglyph conveys meaning and is indifferent to sound).
Graphemes are units of writing that can be both alphabetic and non-alphabetic. Any material fixation of non-speech cannot be recognized as writing. These are, for example, notes (where graphic icons record the sounds of music), flag, light signaling, Morse code.
Non-letter graphemes include:
Numbers. The numbers are hieroglyphs, because they convey the meaning (amount), and not the sound of the word: the number 2 for a speaker in any language means the same amount, while it corresponds to different-sounding units of the language. The value of the digit is positional, because its reading depends on the place in combination: the same number in writing 20 is read differently ( twenty,twenty, zwanzig). Numbers can be homonyms: 1 - one And first, one And first (English);
- signs and symbols of various sciences. These are international graphemes that exist outside of special texts:% - percentage, § - paragraph, ≠ - not equal, ♀ - feminine, ♂ - masculine. Moreover, the same symbols in different sciences can convey different content: the sign > in mathematics means more", in linguistics - " goes into…», sign ║ in mathematics - « parallelism", in linguistics - « alternation";
- abbreviations: prof., etc., etc., m, kg,Dr. (doctor);
- punctuation marks. When reading, they are usually not voiced, but this is an indispensable attribute of written speech, expressing syntactic relations, intonation, and other meanings, i.e. what is most often expressed in intonation in oral speech. Only in written speech without punctuation is a double interpretation of phrases possible. Execution cannot be pardoned; She sings and dances well. Placed punctuation marks make the meaning of sentences different.
- space.Does not reflect phonetic reality. We know that space was not used as a word boundary in ancient manuscripts. In modern writing rules, there are recommendations to write parts of the word not only together, but also separately (cf. adverbs in the hearts, indiscriminately, galloping). The space defines division into words according to the meaning. If the meaning is not clear, then the space can also be used incorrectly. (cf.: upstairs And on top of cabinet)
- discharge and font. They draw the reader's attention to a piece of text. In oral speech, this function is logical stress, intonation. (“It smelled slightly of dampness, dust, old paper and something else. I recognized how only in the next room. It smelled like mice." V. Gilyarovsky);
- the hyphen is a sign of connecting words and their parts, i.e. semi-fluid writing. Often the hyphen performs a differentiating function ( in my way - do it my way; took a raincoat with him - took a raincoat, a tent);
- apostrophe in modern Russian writing is used only in proper names foreign origin ( Joan of Arc);
The accent mark helps eliminate ambiguity if the context cannot. In some cases, not using the accent mark can lead to a distortion of the meaning: hbut mok - deputyabout to; rese zat - cutbut t; Rat ki - handAnd . The stress sign is necessarily used in textbooks when teaching reading, in standard dictionaries.
Let's move on to consideration principles of Russian graphics.
Modern Russian writing, based on the Cyrillic alphabet, is alpha-sound (phonemographic). The basic principle of alphabetic-sound writing is that each letter must correspond to a separate phoneme, and each phoneme must be expressed by one letter character. Such ideal writing systems do not exist today. The degree of perfection of the graphic system is determined by how accurately the letters correspond to the sounds (phonemes).
Modern Russian graphics in this respect is one of the most perfect, since most of the letters of the Russian alphabet are unambiguous. Based on the alphabetic meaning of the letter and the letter-sound correspondence, there are quite a few spellings: house, world, table, tourist, empty, joking, in hand and etc.
However, the system of Russian graphics has a number of deviations from the letter-sound principle. Depending on the alphabetic meaning, the letters of modern Russian writing can be grouped as follows:
letters for vowels: A, O, U, E, S, I;
letters denoting a combination of a vowel sound with the previous [j]: E, E, Yu, I;
letters for solid paired consonants: B, C, G, D, Z, K, L, M, N, P, R, C, T, F, X;
letters for unpaired hard consonants: Zh, Sh, Ts;
letters for unpaired soft consonants: H, W;
letter for [j]: J;
letter to indicate the softness of consonants: b;
letter without alphabetical value: b.
Thus, all letters of the Russian alphabet in their alphabetic meanings reflect strong variants of Russian phonemes. The exception is the letter Y, denoting a weak version of the phoneme
In the Russian alphabet there are no special letters for the sounds of weak positions; spelling is engaged in their designation. This is an objective gap in the Russian alphabet, formed historically.
There are no special letters in the alphabet for paired soft consonants. This is the second objective gap in the Russian alphabet.
For each vowel phoneme in the Russian alphabet, there are two letters:<а>- A and I<о >- Oh and Yo,<э>- E and E,<у>- U and Yu,<и>- Y and I.
So, the Russian alphabet is characterized by insufficiency in the field of letters for consonants and redundancy in the field of letters for vowels.
The objective gaps of the alphabet are compensated by graphics.
Since graphics determine the relationship between the designated sound / sound segment and the letter used, it establishes the rules for the use of the letter, its meaning and prescribes writing and reading letters in a certain way in one position or another.
In Russian graphics, the unit of writing and reading is not a single letter, but a combination of letters. For example, the letter P will be read as a hard or soft consonant, depending on which letter will be used after it: [r] - ra, ro, ru, ry, re or [r '] - rya, ryo, ryu, ri, re, r.
The positional meaning of the letter is a feature of the basic principle of Russian graphics, which is called letter combination. It also has another name - syllable principle, however, this name, despite its rather frequent use, should be recognized as conditional, since when determining the method of denoting a sound or the sound meaning of a letter, the nearest environment, and not the entire syllable, is taken into account first of all. For example, in the word cling one syllable, but in order to write it down, it is necessary to take into account 3 positional combinations: 1) the fact that the sound [l '] is soft, predetermines the use of the letter b after the letter L as a signal of the softness of the consonant, indicated by the letter L; 2) the fact that the sound [n] is hard - the use of the letter Y after the letter H, denoting the hardness [n] and [y]; 3) the fact that the sound [t] is hard - the use of a zero grapheme after the letter T as a signal of the hardness of the consonant.
The main task of the letter-combination principle of graphics is to make up for the shortcomings of the Russian alphabet.
The redundancy of letters to designate vowel sounds should be evaluated positively. Firstly, it allows to significantly save graphic resources, since instead of introducing 15 new letters for paired soft consonants, only 5 letters for vowels with a dual function have been introduced: they simultaneously designate a vowel sound and signal the quality of a consonant. Secondly, the letters for vowels are not doublets: denoting the same vowel sounds, they differ in the graphic function of the signal about the quality of the consonant. Thirdly, the alternation of hard and soft consonants in one morpheme is extremely frequent in Russian. The use of the same letter for paired consonants creates a graphic uniformity of the morpheme, which has a positive effect on the recognition of morphemes and words that have undergone phonetic variation. For example, [house] / [house '] is identified in the same graphic design in word forms home home e, [rΛst] / [rΛs't '] - in rast y / rast And. In addition, this use of letters for vowels should be recognized as systemic, since there are almost no exceptions to it.
The letter combination (syllabic) principle of Russian graphics is used in two areas:
1) when denoting softness-hardness of consonants ( frost - frost, crawling - good, shaft - sluggish, on cola - I'll prick;
2) when designating
The letters E, YO, YU, Z and Y are used in alphabetical meanings. However, the graphics define the positions in which the letters type I function in their alphabetic values, and the positions in which the phoneme [j] is denoted by the letter Y.
The main task of the graphic system of the language is the written fixation of various texts of the native language. However, native speakers may have other needs in the use of writing. For example, writing down words borrowed from another language can reveal sounds that are not present in the native language. For this, two methods are used: transcription and transliteration.
Transcription(lat. transcriptio "rewriting") – this is such a recording of sounding speech in which each phoneme is indicated by a special graphic sign. There are several types of transcription.
Practical transcription– recording of a foreign language text by means of the national alphabet, taking into account the pronunciation: beautiful - [beautyfl]; The main requirement of practical transcription is the exact preservation of the sound image of the transmitted word. In this case, the recording is carried out strictly on the basis of the alphabet of the given language without the use of additional characters; incorrect or unusual use of letters is allowed. Practical transcription is used in cases where a foreign word cannot be translated, or translation is undesirable for some reason (often these are proper names or terms). As a result, foreign words, not translated, but transcribed, are included in the text and function as words of this language, that is, they are actually borrowed (parachute, Siauliai, computer).
Phonetic transcription(actually sound, or segmental) - a way of unambiguously fixing the sound characteristics of words, segments of speech in writing. This uses the International Phonetic Association's Latin-based transcription. For example: easy – [l "ohkej]; ruthless - [bizzalasnej]; beautiful [bju: tuhfl]. For the Russian language, a transcription based on the Russian alphabet is used: beautiful - [byut'if'l]; ruthless -[b'izhzhal'sny]. To accurately reflect all sounds, phonetic transcription uses additional graphic signs: diacritics for longitude and brevity, stress, an apostrophe for softness, special signs for phonemes. It is used in dictionaries of foreign languages (where, for example, spelling is very far from pronunciation and does not have the proper regularity, as in English), in language textbooks, in textbooks of diction and recitation, in recordings of live speech (for example, in dialectology).
Phonemic transcription used to convey the phonemic composition of a word or morpheme: easy – [l’ ogkoj]; ruthless - [bezzalostnoj]. Phonemes in a weak position here are transmitted by graphemes, reflecting the strong position of the sound in the morpheme. It is used in recording examples of grammar, where the structural rather than the pronunciation side of the case is important. Its principle is that each phoneme, regardless of position, is always conveyed by the same sign. Phonemic transcription needs a much smaller number of signs than phonetic, since the number of phonemes is always less than the number of specific sounds - their variants.
Transliteration(lat. trans "through", littera "letter") - letter-by-letter transmission of text written using one graphic system, using another graphic system: beautiful- [beautiful]. Compare: German Schiller- Russian Schiller, where is the german combination sch transmitted by one letter Sh. Transliteration differs from practical transcription in its universality; it is not focused on a specific language, but on a specific graphic system. Transliteration allows the conditional use of letters and other graphic characters.
In the history of Russian writing, transliteration was more often used to convey foreign words. So, in the XVIII - XIX centuries. by letter-by-letter transmission of a foreign word famous names and the names took the following form: newton(Newton) instead newto n, Diderot(Diderot) instead Diderot, « Ivangoe"("Ivanhoe") instead of Ivanhoe», walpol(Walpole) instead Walpole, wallas(Wallace) instead Wallace. In the future, the desire for accuracy in the transmission of sound is manifested. Therefore, at present, when borrowing words, as well as for transferring proper names, transcription is more often used: Newton, Diderot, Ivanhoe". Transliteration prevails in the graphic development of borrowed common names: marketing- marketing,server- server,service- service.
Transliteration rules began to take shape at the end of the 19th century. During the creation of Prussian scientific libraries, when works written in Latin, Cyrillic, Arabic, Indian and other writing systems were included in a single catalog, a need arose for uniform rules for their design. The transcription instructions of these libraries served as the basis for the standard for translating various writing systems into the Latin alphabet.
Today, transliteration recommendations are developed by the International Standards Organization ISO (International Standard Organization). To transmit Russian words in different countries, up to 20 different systems of transliteration in Russian letters are used. The Institute of Linguistics of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (now the Russian Academy of Sciences) developed in 1956 the rules for the international transliteration of Russian proper names in Latin letters (GOST 16876-71). The RAS system was highly appreciated abroad as the second Russian orthography based on Latin.
Common are the transliteration systems of the Library of Congress Slavic (Russian) Transliteration and the Princeton University Library's Russian Transliteration.
ISO 9 - 1995 Information and documentation. Transliteration of Cyrillic letters into Latin. Slavic and non-Slavic languages ”(Transliteration of Slavic Cyrillic characters into Latin characters) is the most famous transliteration system in the world. The main advantage of ISO 9 over other similar systems is its complete unambiguity: each letter corresponds to one letter or a combination of letters with different diacritics. This allows you to accurately transmit the Cyrillic original and perform reverse transliteration, even if the language is not recognized.
Transliteration, due to its universality, can play the role of a single standard for solving practical problems in multilateral international contacts. Compare, for example, the transliteration of the surname Lapshin Lapšin with the variety of its practical transcriptions: English. Lapshin, French Lapchine, ital. Lapscin, Polish. Łapszyn, German. Lapschin.
We cannot do without transliteration skills when processing international postal items, bank documents. Transliteration has gained particular relevance with the advent of the Internet. In computer networks, each person is faced with the need to write Russian words in Latin letters. Due to the fact that this problem usually arises unexpectedly and seems too simple, for the most part everyone goes their own way, coming up with a transliteration as they go. The result of this is the current complete chaos in the Latin transliteration of the Cyrillic alphabet, creating difficulties in machine search and ambiguity when trying to read back the transliterated proper names. Unfortunately, few of the current users of computer systems know that the standard for translating Russian letters into Latin has already been developed at the state level.
The Russian Federation uses GOST 7.79-2000 “System of standards for information, librarianship and publishing. Rules for the transliteration of Cyrillic letters in the Latin alphabet. This standard has been developed on the basis of GOST 16876-71 and is an authentic text of ISO 9-1995. The standard applies to the rules for transliteration by means of the Latin alphabet of individual letters, words, expressions, as well as related texts in languages whose writing is based on the Cyrillic alphabet. The rules of the standard are used wherever it is required to provide an unambiguous representation of the Cyrillic text in Latin letters and the possibility of algorithmic text recovery in the original Cyrillic record, in particular, when transferring documents over computer networks.
At the very Lately programmers have developed converters for automatic translation of text from one alphabetic system to another. For example, a converter for Russian letters (UTF-8), which even provides a transliteration sample:
Eat some more of these soft French rolls and drink some tea –
S"esh" zhe eshhjo ehtikh mjagkikh francuzskikh bulok da vypejj chaju. These converters greatly facilitate transliteration and ensure uniformity of records.
List of used literature
Vetvitsky V.G., Ivanova V.F., Moiseev A.I. Modern Russian writing. - M .: Education, 1974.
Gvozdev A.N. Modern Russian literary language. Part I Phonetics and morphology. - M .: Education, 1973.
Gorbunova L.I. Letter in its history and functioning: textbook.-method. allowance. - Irkutsk: Irkut Publishing House. state un-ta, 2007.
Dudnikov A.V. Modern Russian language. - M: Higher. school, 1993.
Ivanova V.F. Modern Russian language. Graphics and spelling. M., 1976.
Russian language. Encyclopedia/Ch. ed. Yu.N.Karaulov. - M .: Great Russian Encyclopedia; Bustard, 1998.
Modern Russian / Ed. V.A. Beloshapkova. – M.: Azbukovnik, 1999.
Linguistics. Big encyclopedic dictionary. - M .: Great Russian Encyclopedia, 1998.
Questions for self-control
Define the concepts of graphics and graphemes.
Tell us about the relationship between grapheme and letter, grapheme and phoneme. What graphic signs are classified as non-alphabetic graphemes?
Name the principles of Russian graphics.
What is the essence of the syllable principle?
Define the concept of transcription. What is its purpose? Name the types of transcription.
Define the concept of transliteration. How is it different from transcription? In what areas of life does a person have to turn to transliteration?
What are the state and international standards for transliteration.
Assignment for independent work:
Using the list of references, study the topic “Limitation of the syllabic principle of Russian graphics.
Carefully study GOST 7.79-2000 “System of standards for information, librarianship and publishing. Rules for the transliteration of Cyrillic letters in the Latin alphabet. Transliterate your full name(last name, first name and patronymic) in accordance with the requirements of this standard.
A different writing system, as well as their style; a system of relationships between graphemes and the phonemes, syllables, morphemes, words they designate;
2) a section of linguistics that studies these relationships.
The concept of "graphics" is usually used in relation to the sound-letter type of writing, in which, in addition to graphics, two more sides are distinguished - the alphabet and spelling. The main means of graphics here are graphemes (letters), as well as punctuation marks. In addition, the accent mark is used, various tricks word abbreviations, spaces between words, uppercase or lowercase letters, indents (see Paragraph), all kinds of underlining, in printed reproduction of text - font emphasis (for example, italics). In a special form of writing - transcription - other graphic signs (softness, longitude, brevity, and so on) can be used.
IN modern world the most common writing systems are based on the Latin alphabet (see Latin script), Cyrillic and Arabic script. The degree of perfection of the graphic system is determined by how accurate the correspondence between the systems of graphemes (letters) and the phonemes of a particular language is. Perfect Graphics, in which each grapheme (letter) would convey only one phoneme, does not exist. Relatively economical (in terms of the ratio of the number of letters and phonemes) are graphic writing systems that are a continuation of the Cyrillic alphabet. With the invention of Slavic alphabets (Cyrillic and Glagolitic) Greek alphabet was specially revised in order to maximize its correspondence to the phonemic composition of the Slavic languages. Of the modern graphics systems, which are the development of the Cyrillic alphabet, one of the most advanced is Russian. Most of the letters of the Russian alphabet are unambiguous; in it, 33 letters are used to designate 41 [according to the Leningrad (Petersburg) phonological school] phonemes. Quite economical alphabets for many peoples former USSR created on the basis of Russian.
In many modern writing systems based on the Latin alphabet, the discrepancy between the number of graphemes (letters) and phonemes is quite large - 23 Latin letters (25 in late Latin) are used to represent from 36 to 46 (for example, in English) phonemes. This is explained by the fact that historically the Latin alphabet was adapted (without its fundamental changes) to the languages that adopted it. The gap in the ratio of graphemes (letters) and phonemes also increased due to the phonetic changes that took place in the languages, if their spelling remained traditional. As an additional means of expressing phonemes, letter combinations (complex graphemes) are used: digraphs (for example, English ck for [k], German ch for [h], Polish sz for [s]), trigraphs (for example, English oeu for), polygraphs ( English augh for [:e]). So, in English there are 118 such graphemes; together with monographs (of type m for [m]) it has a total of 144 graphemes. Some graphic systems introduced additional letters (for example, French ç, Polish ł), letters with superscripts(Czech š, č, z, German ä, ö, ü).
Graphics of many modern languages according to the method of reproduction and according to the pattern of letters, it is usually divided into written and printed. For example, the modern styles of the letters of the written graphics of the Russian language were formed on the basis of the styles of the letters of the Old Russian script. The foundations of the graphics of the modern Russian printed type were laid by the reform of Peter I (see Reforms of the alphabet and spelling), who introduced civil type for printing books.
Lit .: Baudouin de Courtenay I. A. On the relationship of Russian writing to the Russian language. SPb., 1912; Gvozdev A.N. Fundamentals of Russian spelling // Gvozdev A.N. Selected works on spelling and phonetics. M., 1963; Balinskaya V. I. Graphics of modern in English. M., 1964; Vachek G. Written language. General problems and problems of English. The Hague; R., 1973; Amirova T. A. On the history and theory of graphemics. M., 1977 (bibl.); she is. Functional relationship between written and spoken language. M., 1985; Shcherba L. V. Theory of Russian writing. L., 1983; New trends in graphemics and orthography. N.Y., 1986; Zinder L.R. Essay on the general theory of writing. L., 1987 (bibl.); Derrida G. De la grammatologie. . R., 1997.
Speech sounds are transmitted in writing using special graphic characters. - letters. Writing in letters, each of which usually denotes a separate sound of speech, is called sound. Sound writing exists today among most peoples of the world. Russian writing is also sound.
A section of the science of language that studies descriptive signs (graphic means) and the relationship between letters and sounds, is called graphics (Greek. grapho - I write).
The main graphic means of the Russian language are letters. In addition to letters, graphic means include accent, hyphen, punctuation, apostrophe and some other signs.
In the graphics of different languages, the same letters are found, but they can denote different sounds. So Russian here will be in latin b ohm.
There are 33 letters in Russian writing. The letters arranged in a certain order make up the alphabet. The sequence of letters in the alphabet is conditional, but it is very important to know it, since various lists, catalogs are compiled alphabetically, words are placed in the dictionary.
Each letter has its own name. You need to know the names of the letters in order to be able to correctly read some compound words, for example: RSFSR(er-es-ef-es-er), Moscow State University(um-ge-woo).
Aa Bb Vv Gg Dd Her Her Zhzh Zz Ii Yi Kk Ll
a be ve ge de e yo zhe ze and y short ka el
Mm Nn Oo Pp Rr Ss Tt Uu Ff Xx Ts Hh Shsh
em en o pe er es te u ef ha tse che sha
Shch bj Yy bb Ee Yuyu Yaya
shcha hard s (ery) soft e reversible yu I
sign (er) sign (er)
Each letter has two varieties: uppercase (large) and lowercase (small). There are some differences between letters in printed and
handwritten texts, for example: Tm and TP, t.
To designate vowels, 10 vowels are used: a, e, e, i, o, y, s, e, u, i. Consonant sounds are indicated by 21 consonant letters: b, c, d, e, g, h, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, f, x, c, h, w, u, y. The letters ъ and ь do not represent any sounds. b - indicates the softness of the preceding consonant. Both of these letters are used as special separator characters. In words there And Tiger letter T used in its main meaning, since replacing it with any other letter will lead to a change or complete destruction of the word (cf. there, ladies, myself, din). In words gave And separated letter T used in a secondary sense. Its replacement by the letter d will not change the pronunciation. In these words, the letter T denotes the sounds [d] and [d 1], arising from the operation of the law of assimilation. Vowels can also be used in the primary and secondary meanings. In the word bridge, the letter o is used in the main meaning, and in the words bridges and pavement - in a secondary one.
single and double letters.
2. The Russian alphabet has one-digit and two-digit letters. Letters that have one basic sound meaning are unambiguous. These are vowels a, o, u, s, uh and consonants w, w, w, h, c, d. Letters w, w, c in the main meaning, solid consonants are always conveyed in writing (they do not have soft pairs); letters h, w in the main meaning, soft consonants are conveyed in writing (they do not have hard pairs). letter th the variant of the phoneme] (and non-syllabic) is transmitted in writing, occurring at the end of a word or syllable after a vowel sound before a consonant: frost, sanatorium, slender.
The hardness or softness of a consonant is indicated by a vowel usually written after it: a, u, o, s, uh indicate the firmness of consonants, I,yu, yo, i, e- for softness. For example, in the word dawn the letter a stands for the sound [l] and indicates hardness [h], and the letter I denotes the sound [a] and indicates softness [p 1].
Modern Russian graphics are distinguished by a number of features that have evolved historically and represent a certain graphics system.
Russian graphics do not have such an alphabet, in which for each sound pronounced in the speech stream there is a special letter. There are much fewer letters in the Russian alphabet than there are sounds in live speech. As a result, the letters of the alphabet turn out to be multi-valued, that is, they can have several sound meanings. So, for example, the letter "es" can denote such sounds: [s] - ships, garden, [s '] - here, sit down, [s] - surrender, collection, [s '] - mowing, [w] - sew , [.g] - compress.
The meaning of the letter c in each of the six cases is different: in the words of the court, here the letter c cannot be replaced by any other letter, such a replacement would lead to a distortion of the word. In this case, it is used in its main meaning. In other cases, the letter c appears in secondary meanings.
Thus, with the ambiguity of letters, Russian graphics distinguish between the main and secondary meanings of letters. So, in the word house, the letter o is used in the main meaning, and in the word home - in a secondary meaning.
The second feature of Russian graphics is the division of letters according to the number of sounds they designate. In this regard, the letters of the Russian alphabet fall into three groups:
a) letters devoid of sound meaning. These are the letters b and b, which do not denote any sounds, as well as the so-called "unpronounceable consonants" in such, for example, words: sun, heart, etc .;
b) letters denoting two sounds - e [p], e, yu, i;
c) letters denoting one sound. These are all the letters of the Russian alphabet, with the exception of the letters included in the first and second groups.
The third feature of Russian graphics is the presence of single-digit and double-digit letters in it. The first include letters that have one basic meaning: a, o, y, e, s; g, c, h, w, w, d. So, for example, the letters h, q are among the unambiguous, since the letter h in all positions denotes the same soft sound [h'1 and the letter q - a hard sound [c].
The second, i.e., two-digit, letters include:
- all letters denoting consonants, paired in hardness-softness;
- letters denoting vowel sounds: e, e, u, i.
and a soft sound - [b] and [b ']: was - beat; the letter i in some cases denotes the sound [a] after a soft consonant, in others - a combination, for example: [vaz] - both] t, [d'a] dya - a] ma.
The letter and can denote the sounds [and], [s]: [h'i] one hundred - [zhy \ r, [v'i] d - [tsy] nk.
The ambiguity of the indicated letters of the Russian alphabet is due to the specifics of Russian graphics - its syllabic principle. The syllabic principle of Russian graphics is that in Russian writing, in certain cases, not a letter, but a syllable, acts as a unit of writing.
Such a syllable, that is, a combination of a consonant and a vowel, is an integral graphic element, the parts of which are mutually conditioned. The syllabic principle of graphics is used in the designation of paired consonants in hardness-softness.
In modern Russian, consonant sounds paired in hardness-softness have a phonemic meaning, that is, they serve to distinguish the sound shells of words. However, in the Russian alphabet there are no separate letters to designate consonants paired in terms of softness and hardness. The absence of individual letters is compensated for by the presence of double vowel styles in our graphics. So, the letters a, o, y, e, s indicate the hardness of the previous consonant, and the letters i, e, u, e, and - softness, compare: pad - row, they say - chalk, tuk - bale, sir - ser , was - beat.
Thus, the letters denoting consonant sounds paired in hardness-softness are two-valued: without taking into account the subsequent letter, it is impossible to determine whether a consonant sound paired in hardness-softness is hard or soft.
The softness of a consonant phoneme before a consonant and at the end of a word is denoted by a special letter b: bathhouse, believe, mole, hit, etc.
The syllable principle also applies to the designation of the consonant sound [/] (yot), and this application is carried out only within words. The consonant sound [/] is indicated by a special letter th only when the syllable ends with this sound following the vowel: sing - sing, lei - lei, spring, blind, etc.
In all other positions, the sound [/] together with the next vowel sound is indicated by one letter, namely: i -, e -, e - e], yu - y].
This meaning of the letters (e, e, u, i) takes place:
- at the beginning of the word: pit, hedgehog, south, spruce;
- after vowels: mine, mine, mine, I will go;
- after the separating signs b and b: declare - a monkey, volume - we will knock down, congress - mouth, pre-anniversary - blizzard.
However, the syllabic principle is far from consistent in Russian graphics. The main deviation from the syllabic principle is the designation of vowels after consonants, unpaired in hardness-softness. So, after always solid consonants [w], [w], [c] vowels are denoted, contrary to the syllabic principle, by the letters i, e, e, occasionally u, i: breadth, gesture, pole, groove, whisper, brochure, jury , parachute, figure, chain, Kotsiubinsky, Tsjavlovsky, etc.
After always soft [hCh, [th?], contrary to the syllabic principle, the letters a, o, y are written: bowl, clink glasses, miracle, food, Shchors, pike, etc.
These deviations from the syllabic principle have developed historically. In modern Russian, the sounds [zh], [sh], [ts] do not have soft varieties, and the sounds [hCh, [shCh] do not have hard varieties. Therefore, the hardness and softness of these sounds are indicated by the consonants themselves, which are unambiguous and do not require designation by subsequent vowels.
Special cases of deviations from the syllabic principle:
- writing foreign (more often French) words with Ёo instead of ё; compare: broth - linen;
- writing compound words with o, ah, yu, yu: village district, village airfield, dalugol, construction site;
- writing at the beginning of foreign words yo instead of ё: hedgehog, ruff - iodine, Yorkshire, New York.
Graphics is an applied field of knowledge about the language, which establishes the composition of the styles used in the letter and the sound meanings of the letters.
Alphabet - complete list letters in the usual order. (33 letters; each has two varieties - uppercase and lowercase).
The alphabet of the SRLYA is based on the Old Slavonic alphabet, which did not correspond to the then sound system (yus large and yus small - letters denoting sounds that were not in the Russian language).
Features of Russian graphics.
A) There are fewer letters of the alphabet than sounds in living speech - the letters are polysemantic.
Letter C: [s] - court, garden, [s "] - here, sit down, [s] - surrender, collection, [s"] - mowing, done, [w] - sew [w] - squeeze
b) division of letters according to the number of designated sounds. letters devoid of sound meaning: b and b, unpronounceable consonants (sun, heart) letters denoting two sounds: i, e, e, u, letters denoting one sound, i.e. other.
C) the presence of single-digit and double-digit letters in the schedule.
unambiguous - h and c in all positions denote the same sound [h "], [c].
two-digit - all consonants, paired in hardness-softness; vowels i, e, e, u.
Ambiguity is associated with the syllabic principle of Russian graphics.
The syllabic principle of Russian graphics is: in certain cases, the syllable acts as a unit of writing as an integral graphic element, the parts of which are mutually conditioned.
Cases of changing the syllable principle.
1. to designate paired consonants in terms of hardness-softness. The letter t can express both a hard sound (become) and a soft sound (stretched). The absence of separate letters for sounds paired in terms of hardness and softness is compensated by the presence of a double outline of vowels. So, a, o, y, e, s - indicate the hardness of the previous consonant, and I, e, u, e, and - softness (glad - a row, was - beat, they say - chalk, tuk - tuk). Only at the end of a word and before consonants (but not always) is the softness of consonants conveyed by the letter ь.
2. to indicate the consonant sound [j] inside words and if the syllable ends in [j] after the vowel, y is used (sing, spring).
But: - at the beginning of the word (pit, hedgehog)
After vowels (mine, I'll go)
After ъ, ь (volume, we will knock down)
Departure from the syllabic principle:
1. after always solid w, w, c, vowels are indicated and, e, e, u, i (fat, pole, number, jury).
2. after always soft h, u - a, o, y (thicket, miracle, pike).
4. writing complex abbreviated words with yo, ba, yu, yu (selokrug, construction site, Dalugol).
5. yo instead of ё at the beginning of foreign words (New York, iodine).
6. the absence of a letter to designate the sound [g "] (yeast).
Lack of designation stressed syllable in the word.
Russian spelling is a system of rules for writing words. It consists of five main sections: 1) the transmission of the phonemic composition of words by letters; 2) continuous, separate and hyphenated spellings of words and their parts; 3) the use of uppercase and lowercase letters; 4) word wrap; 5) graphic abbreviations of words.
1) spelling is a spelling chosen or still sought, in the case where the writer is given a choice of letters to denote a particular sound;
2) a spelling is such a spelling of a word that is selected from a number of possible ones with the same pronunciation and meets the spelling rule.
The principle of verification is as follows: the sound of a weak position is checked by a strong position (see phonemic analysis); having established the phoneme that is realized in a given sound, it is designated by the corresponding letter. The same letter designates a phoneme in strong and weak positions within the same morpheme. This is the essence of the basic principle of Russian orthography. This principle is implemented in cases where a weak position of a phoneme can be unambiguously verified by a strong position in the same morpheme. This principle is referred to in the educational literature in different ways: morphological (morphematic), phonemic or morphonematic. The morphological name focuses on the dependence of spellings on the morphological characteristics of the word, i.e. to the uniform spelling of morphemes. The phonemic name establishes the relationship between letters and phonemes. The term morphonematic seems to be the most successful, because it synthesizes the correlation of a letter with a phoneme within a morpheme. Basic (morphonematic) principle orthography provides a uniform spelling of the same morpheme in the forms of the same word and in different words. The same spelling of the same morphemes makes it easy to recognize words with these morphemes, and this contributes to rapid understanding and reading.
The morphonematic principle of Russian spelling determines the spelling of most spelling letters, therefore this is the main principle of conveying the phonemic composition of a word by letters (see the first section of spelling).
Not all spelling rules obey the morphonematic principle. In some cases, it is not possible to check a weak position, because in this morpheme, the phoneme does not occur in a strong position: mabout loco, tobut casting, into hall, rede , usidchAnd out etc. In this case, a hyperphoneme appears: m/o\a/loko, k/a\o/litka, vo/k\g/zal, etc. The morphonematic principle of spelling here limits the choice of letters, but does not give an unambiguous solution, because the choice of letter is not motivated by modern linguistic patterns. Writing in such cases is based on two principles: morphonematic and traditional (historical).
Traditional principle Russian orthography lies in the fact that the spelling is used, fixed by tradition (history). In school practice, words with a hyperphoneme are fundamentally called dictionary words and are given lists for memorization. The traditional principle of spelling comes into play not only in cases where a phoneme cannot be placed in a strong position, but also when there is an alternation of phonemes in a strong position of the same morpheme, for example: hbut revo - sabout ri, poklabout n – classbut to take; letter selection but (hbut rya) or about (according toabout thread) in an unstressed position is determined by tradition. Thus, traditional (historical) spellings reproduce the graphic appearance of a word or morpheme that has developed in the past. At the same time, in modern Russian writing, the traditional spellings of some morphemes are uniformly reproduced in all related words or in similar morphemes of other words, which does not contradict the morphonematic principle. For example: milk about,milk ny,milk nitsa,milk sheep, etc.; usidchiv oh, insultchiv oh, changechiv yy, etc.; reds , largeie , handsomes and etc.
Traditional (historical) spellings can be divided into two categories - actually traditional (historical) and differentiating. The following spellings can be attributed to the traditional ones:
letters denoting hyperphonemes: Gabout roh, kbut Tbut stanza, spaceabout on thein t etc.;
o-e at the root after hissing: wabout rox, we sweat, he rny, habout porn, etc.;
s - and after c: cAnd pk, cAnd panty, cs gan, cs films, etc.;
spelling of unstressed vowels in the roots zar/zor, ros/rast, gor/gar, kos/kas, skoch/skak, lag/lodge, mok/mak, stil/stel, dir/der, mir/mer, bir/ber, fir / per, blist / shine, clone / clan, etc.: zarabout sli/zarbut become, toabout sleep/tobut sit down, sunabout read / searchbut kat and others;
o - a in suffixes of adverbs like: leftbut - to the leftabout , drybut - dryabout etc.;
nn in adjective suffixes –enn-, -onn- and н in suffixes –an-, -yan-, -in-, as well as exceptions to this rule: kinshipenn oh, stationhe N oh, the winden th, etc.;
нн in the participle suffixes in full form and н in short form: checknn oh, checkn a, etc.;
-th / -th endings in the genitive and accusative forms of adjectives and pronouns and in the word today: bigWow , sinhis , mohis etc.;
b for verbs after hissing in different forms: liveb , cut offb etc.;
ь in adverbs, particles on hissing: backb , allb , leashb , bishb etc. and some other spellings.
Differentiating traditional (historical) spellings perform the function of delimiting words or their grammatical forms. This may include cases:
e - and in the suffixes of verbs: exhaustede t (lose strength) - exhaustedAnd t (deprive someone else of strength), etc .;
particles are neither: Where does she gonot applied! Where does she goneither She called, no one helped her.
prefixes pre-/pre- in homophones: at to visit (to come)pre to be (to be)at emnik -pre emnik, etc.;
double and single consonants in homophones: bal - ball , sum a - summ a, etc.;
5) lowercase and uppercase letter for proper and common nouns: n hope -H hope,about rel -ABOUT rel, etc.;
6) n in the short form of passive participles and nn in the short form of adjectives : She brought upn but a father. She is smart and educatednn but.
7) ь after hissing in nouns of the 3rd declension and its absence in nouns of the 2nd declension : rypb , daughterb , knife etc. and some other spellings.
In contradiction with the morphonematic principle of spelling is also phonetic principle, which lies in the fact that the letter does not denote a phoneme, but a sound, i.e. we write what we hear. Such spellings include the following: o - and in the prefixes ras- / ros-, raz- / rose-: Rbut write off - rabout sleep, rbut play - rabout gamble, etc.; with at the end of prefixes: rah beat - rafrom drink andh cut - andfrom bite, etc.; o - e after hissing and c in the endings of nouns and adjectives, as well as in suffixes of nouns, adjectives and adverbs: cloakabout m - cloude y, bigabout y - goode y, merchantabout m - chintze m, suchabout k - handkerchiefe k, brocadeabout out - chintze wow, hotabout - brilliante etc.; and - s at the root of the word after prefixes to a consonant: And play withs play,And skat - rosess ck, etc.; and in the endings of the dative and prepositional cases of nouns 1 declension into -iya and the prepositional case of nouns 2 declensions into -i, -i: (dedicated) armyAnd , on excursionsAnd , in productAnd , about the sanatoriumAnd etc.; s after c: lads , cutss y, Sinitss etc.. and some other spellings.
Modern Russian graphics in this respect is one of the most perfect, since most of the letters of the Russian alphabet are unambiguous. Based on the alphabetic meaning of the letter and the letter-sound correspondence, there are quite a few spellings: house, world, table, tourist, empty, joking, in hand, etc.
However, the system of Russian graphics has a number of deviations from the letter-sound principle. Depending on the alphabetic meaning, the letters of modern Russian writing can be grouped as follows:
letters for vowels: A, O, U, E, S, I;
letters denoting a combination of a vowel sound with the previous [j]: E, E, Yu, I;
letters for solid paired consonants: B, C, G, D, Z, K, L, M, N, P, R, C, T, F, X;
letters for unpaired hard consonants: Zh, Sh, Ts;
letters for unpaired soft consonants: H, W;
letter for [j]: J;
letter to indicate the softness of consonants: b;
letter without alphabetical value: b.
Thus, all letters of the Russian alphabet in their alphabetic meanings reflect strong variants of Russian phonemes. The exceptions are the letter Y, which denotes a weak version of the phoneme, and the letters b and b, which do not denote sounds. In the Russian alphabet there are no special letters for the sounds of weak positions; spelling is engaged in their designation. This is an objective gap in the Russian alphabet, which has been formed historically. There are no special letters in the alphabet to denote paired soft consonants. This is the second objective gap of the Russian alphabet. There are two letters for each vowel phoneme in the Russian alphabet:<а>- A and I<о >- Oh and Yo,<э>- E and E,<у>- U and Yu,<и>- Y and I.
So, the Russian alphabet is characterized by insufficiency in the field of letters for consonants and redundancy in the field of letters for vowels. The objective gaps of the alphabet are compensated by graphics. Since graphics determine the relationship between the designated sound / sound segment and the letter used, it establishes the rules for the use of the letter, its meaning and prescribes writing and reading letters in a certain way in one position or another. In Russian graphics, the unit of writing and reading is not a single letter, but a combination of letters. For example, the letter P will be read as a hard or soft consonant, depending on which letter will be used after it: [r] - ra, ro, ru, ry, re or [r '] - rya, ryo, ryu, ri, re, r.
In native Russian words, the phoneme
1) at the beginning of a word, before a vowel and between vowels< j>together with vowels< а>, < у>, < э>, < о>lettered i, yu, e, yo;
2) phoneme after consonant before vowel< j>lettered i, yu, e, yo, and using b And b:blizzard, flaw etc.;
3) after a vowel and before a consonant and at the end of a word< j>denoted by the letter th. in borrowed words th stands for< j>and before a vowel phoneme: iodine;
after a consonant combination of phonemes< jo>transmitted in letters yo: medallion
after a vowel before< и>phoneme< j>the letter does not indicate: lose.