Bosnia national composition. Sights of bosnia and herzegovina

Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bosnian and Croatian Bosna i Hercegovina, BiH, Serbian Bosna and Herzegovina, BiH) is a state in the central part of the Balkan Peninsula.

Consists of autonomous administrative units of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Republika Srpska and the Brcko District. The name of the country comes from the name of the river Bosna and the German title "duke", which was worn by the governor Stefan Vukcic Kosacha in the 15th century. It borders Croatia in the west and north, Serbia in the east, and Montenegro in the southeast. It has a small outlet to the Adriatic Sea - about 24.5 km of coastline. Area - 51 thousand square meters. km. Large cities - Tuzla, Banja Luka, Mostar, Zenica, Bihac, Travnik. The monetary unit of Bosnia and Herzegovina is Bosnia and Herzegovina is located on the territory of two historical regions - Bosnia, which occupies the valley of the Sava River and its tributaries, and Herzegovina, located to the south, in the Neretva River basin. The capital is the city of Sarajevo (about 800 thousand people). The city of Sarajevo was founded in 1263 and then received the name "Bosnovar" (Vrhbosna in Serbian). The city is located in a basin surrounded by mountains and open only from the western side, at an altitude of 450 m above sea level. Two Orthodox churches have been preserved - the old Church of Saints Michael and Gabriel (presumably 1478-1539) and the Cathedral Church of the Holy Mother of God (1863-1868), 4 Catholic churches, including the spiritual center of Bosnian Catholics - the Cathedral (XVIII century) , 3 synagogues, including the Old Synagogue (1566-1581), which now houses the Jewish Museum with the famous "Hagad Code", as well as the Town Hall ("Vechnitsa", 1896) in the Moorish style and the Regional Administration Palace.

But the urban landscape is dominated by colorful Muslim buildings, most of which are considered masterpieces of Ottoman architecture - the Tsareva-Jamia mosque ("Royal Mosque", XVI century), the largest in the country, "Begova-Jamia" (XV century), Ali- Pasha-Jamia (1560-1561) and about a hundred more mosques, the Kursumli madrasah (1537) with a library, which today has about 50 thousand manuscripts and books, the Barcharshiya tower (XV century), the Brusa-Bezistan shopping center, the old caravan a barn (XV c) on Morika-Khan, a Turkish fortress with 12 towers on a rocky ledge, and many trading buildings of the Turkish era.

Surrounded by scenic mountains Igman(height up to 1502 m.) and Trebovich, which protect the resort from cold winds, this geographical center of the former Yugoslavia is widely known as one of the best thermal resorts in Europe.

Medieval city ​​of Yajce, which is a colorful mixture of old houses on the mountain slopes, cobbled streets and fortress walls, was the capital of the Christian rulers of Bosnia until the 15th century. Here, on the banks of the Pliva and Vrbas rivers, during the Nazi occupation, the temporary capital of the country was located, the capital of independent Yugoslavia was proclaimed here and the Constitution was created, which formalized the principles of the new federal country. The arena of fierce battles of the recent war, the city still incomprehensibly retained its ancient appearance, still attracting the attention of tourists. The main sights of Yajce are the famous Esma-Sultan Mosque (1753-1763), the Church of St. Luke, many colorful old houses, as well as a cascade of small but very colorful waterfalls and a complex of ancient water mills on the Pliva River.

Mostar- the unofficial capital of southern Herzegovina and the second largest city in the country. It was founded, approximately, in the XV-XVI centuries as a bridgehead on the trade route between the Adriatic coast and the hinterland of the Dinaric Highlands. The ancient district of Kuyunjiluk is literally replete with monuments of Islamic architecture: medieval buildings, cobbled streets and shops in a colorful oriental style. The visiting card of the city is the Stari-bridge, arching its steep back 20 meters above the green waters of the Neretva. This unique engineering structure of the Middle Ages is considered one of the main architectural monuments country and is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. Also preserved (or restored) are Mostar University, the Kriva-Kupria bridge ("Crooked Bridge"), the towers of Halebia and Tara that supported the Stari Bridge, mosques and a monument in honor of those who fell during the years of the struggle against fascism.

In the town Blagay, 10 km south of Mostar there is a massive fortress of the same name.

Tiny Medugorje village, lying 17 km southwest of Mostar, on June 24, 1981 literally in one hour became world famous. On this day, six teenagers from this then wretched village, lying almost on the top of the mountain between Chitluk and Lyubushki, saw the appearance of the Virgin Mary, and instantly Medugorje was seized by an economic boom. You can visit the church of St. James and the rocky hill of Podbrdo, 5 kilometers away, where the event that made the village famous took place.

Banja Luka- once a modest city on the banks of the river Vrbas ("vrba" - willow), in the northwestern part of the country, is now known to the world as the capital of the Serbian Republic. Banja Luka ("St. Luke's bath", the first mention of it dates back to the end of the 15th century) was never known as a tourist center, it was a large industrial city that did not attract many visitors to the country, and besides, it lost part of its historical heritage in 1993 year, when Serbian militias blew up all 16 mosques in the city. Therefore, now only the fortress (XVI century) on the banks of the Vrbas, the recreated Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Presidential Palace and the famous warm sulphurous springs near the city, which are considered one of the most famous balneo-climatic resorts in Europe, deserve attention here.

Also noteworthy is the most southeastern city of the country - Trebin, on the outskirts of which rises the national shrine of the Serbs - the Hercegovachka-Gracanitsa church, the Kravice waterfall on the Trebijat river in Herzegovina, the Zhitomislich monastery in the Neretva river valley, as well as the old residence of the Turkish governor in the city of Travnik (between Jaice and Sarajevo).

This flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina was one of three presented to the parliament appointed by the UN High Representative. All flags used the same colors: blue - the color of the United Nations, but it was replaced with a darker one. The stars symbolize Europe. The triangle symbolizes the country's three main population groups (Bosniaks, Croats and Serbs) and the outline of the country on the map. After the declaration of independence in 1992, the approved flag of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina was a white panel with the coat of arms of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina placed in the center - a blue shield with six golden lilies and a diagonal white stripe. During the Bosnian War, this flag was used by Bosnian Muslims and the RBiH government in controlled territories. Currently, the flag of the RBiH (popularly the "flag with lilies") is used by Muslim national organizations, football fans of Bosnian nationality, as well as among Bosnian nationalists.
Coat of arms of Bosnia and Herzegovina- the state symbol of Bosnia and Herzegovina, is a blue shield with a yellow triangle. The triangle symbolizes the country's three main population groups (Bosniaks, Croats and Serbs) and the outline of the country on the map. The white stars symbolize Europe.

NATURE

Bosnia and Herzegovina is a mountainous country. Most of it is located within the Dinaric Highlands - a complex system of mountain ranges, ridges, intermountain basins and valleys. In the far north, a wide low-lying strip stretches along the Sava River. To the south, it is replaced by medium-altitude mountains, composed of shales and sandstones. Further south are high mountains composed of limestone. Karst (bare limestone rocks, fields, karrs, caves) is widespread here. The highest mountain Maglic (2386 m) is located in the southeast, on the border with Yugoslavia. Parallel mountain ranges run from northwest to southeast. Most of the rivers belong to the Danube basin and flow in a northerly direction (Una, Sana, Vrbas, Bosna, Drina are tributaries of the Sava river bordering Croatia). Only a few rivers flow into the Adriatic Sea, and the largest of them is the Neretva. The valleys of the tributaries of the Sava widen in a northerly direction and smoothly turn into a fertile plain, which occupies the northern third of the country.

The territory of BiH is located at the southern border of the temperate climate zone. This area is characterized by average annual temperatures of 9-11°C, warm summers (average July temperature 19-21°C in the plains and 12-18°C in the mountains), moderately cool winters (average January temperature from 0 to -2°C on plains, from -4 to -7 ° C in the mountains) and abundant and uniform precipitation throughout the year (800-1000 mm on the plains and 1500-1800 mm in the mountains). The extreme southwest (Herzegovina) is characterized by a subtropical Mediterranean climate with hot dry summers (average July temperature 25 ° C) and warm wet winters (average January temperature + 5 ° C). The characteristic features of the local climate also include a rapid change in local weather during the day, which is associated with different heating of the mountain slopes under the influence of sunlight, changing its azimuth and angle of incidence during the day. The average temperature in summer in the valleys is from +16 to +27 C, and up to +10-21 in mountainous areas (in the capital, the average temperature in July is +21 C). In winter, from 0 C to -7 C, respectively (in the capital in January, about -1 C, but the temperature can drop to -16 C). Precipitation falls from 400 (eastern slopes of the mountains) to 1500 (western) mm per year, mainly in summer and early winter.

Fertile alluvial soils are widespread in the Sava valley and its tributaries, and brown forest soils are common in the mountains.

Forests occupy 41% of the territory of BiH. Indigenous broad-leaved forests are almost not preserved on the northern plains, which are currently occupied by agricultural land. In the north, in the foothills and on the slopes of the mountains up to a height of approx. 500 m grow oak and hornbeam forests with an admixture of maple and linden. In the central regions, beech trees are common, and above 800-900 m above sea level. - beech-fir forests with an admixture of maple, pine and spruce. In the upper mountain belt, above 1600-1700 m above sea level, subalpine meadows are widespread. In the subtropics in the south-west of BiH, evergreen forests (maquis) and deciduous shrubs are common up to a height of 300-400 m, higher in the mountains - forests of southern species of oak, hornbeam and maple.

In the mountains of BiH there are chamois, red deer, roe deer, brown bears, wolves, wild boars, lynxes, forest cats, otters, martens, and many hares. Lizards, snakes, turtles are common in karst areas. The avifauna is rich. From large birds there are eagles, falcons, capercaillie. The mouth of the Neretva River is characterized by swampy landscapes. There are great and little egrets, various waterfowl, and birds of prey - golden eagle, greater spotted eagle, white-tailed eagle.

In the highlands of southern Bosnia is the large Sutjeska National Park.

Many minerals are concentrated in the bowels of Bosnia and Herzegovina: large deposits of brown coal, iron and manganese ore, bauxite, rock salt, building stone and small deposits of copper, barite, lead, silver. Mountain rivers have significant hydropower potential.

Geographic data

Almost the entire territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with the exception of the north, lies within the Dinaric Highlands, the strongly dissected ranges of which run parallel to each other from the northwest to the southeast. Between the ridges, vast intermountain basins are stretched, in which the country's settlements are located. The height of the ridges decreases from the center to the border with Croatia in the north and south.

The highest peak is Mount Maglich (2386 m). In the mountains, composed of limestone strata, karst landforms are common (karst caves, underground rivers, karrs), and in intermountain basins there are extensive karst fields (the largest Livansko-Pole is 405 km²). In the south of the Dinaric Highlands, near the city of Neum, Bosnia and Herzegovina has a small outlet to the Adriatic Sea (but the coastal waters belong to Croatia). In the north, in the valley of the Sava River, South part Middle Danubian lowland.

The territory of the country was formed during the Alpine folding and is located within the Alpine-Himalayan mobile belt, which explains the high seismicity of the Dinaric highlands. On October 27, 1969, a catastrophic earthquake completely destroyed the city of Banja Luka. The bowels of Bosnia and Herzegovina are rich in bauxite, lignite, brown coal, iron, manganese, mercury ores, and rock salt. Most of Bosnia and Herzegovina has a temperate continental climate with warm summers and moderately cool winters.

The rivers Una, Vrbas, Bosna (river), Drina flow to the north, flowing into the Sava, which belongs to the Danube basin. The Neretva River flows into the Adriatic Sea. About 30 HPPs (Bushko Blato, Yablanitsa) have been built on mountain rivers with great hydropower potential. Forests occupy about half of the country's territory (mainly in the mountains). Agricultural land has displaced forests from the plains. In the lower belt of mountains on the northern slopes, broad-leaved forests grow, changing above 900 m to spruce-fir forests, and above 1700 m to pine crooked forests and subalpine meadows. The southwestern slopes are occupied by evergreen Mediterranean vegetation.

Geological structure

Most of the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina belongs to the Dinaric fold system (Dinarids).

In the south of the country, there is the outer Dinarid zone, which is composed of carbonate rocks of the Mesozoic, Cretaceous and Paleogene flysch, and is complicated by a system of folds and overthrusts. The middle Dinarid zone, located to the north, is characterized by a wide distribution of limestones forming large blocky folds. The inner Dinarid zone, which stretches through Bosnia and Herzegovina towards Serbia, is a complex folded system formed from geosynclinal troughs that existed until the Paleogene.

In the north of the country, in the region of the Middle Danube Plain, the territory is represented by limestones, sandstones and clays of the Neogene, which in the Pleistocene were covered by other deposits of a loess, alluvial and eolian character.

POPULATION

There is no complete information about the size and structure of the population. According to unofficial data, four and a half million people currently live in BiH. The country ranks 120th in the world in terms of population. Before the outbreak of hostilities (according to the 1991 census), 4.36 million people lived in the country: Bosnians - 43.6%, Serbs - 31.4%, Croats - 17.3%. The official languages ​​are Bosnian, Serbian, Croatian. The predominant religions are Islam, Orthodoxy, Catholicism.

The average life expectancy in the country is one of the highest in Europe. The country ranks 45th in the world in terms of life expectancy. Men, on average, live 78 years, and women 84 years. The share of the urban population is 49%. Natural increase - +1.80

Religious composition

There are three main national-religious communities in the country: Bosnian Muslims (43.7% of believers as of 1991, mostly Sunnis); predominantly Orthodox Serbs (31.4%) and Catholic Croats (17.3%). Protestants stand out among the small groups (4%).

GOVERNMENT

The most complex system of government in BiH in Europe and the diversity of political parties at the national and republican levels are determined by the historical development of the country in the 1990s. Under the 1946 Yugoslav constitution, Bosnia and Herzegovina was one of the country's six republics. According to the current constitution, contained in Annex 4 of the Dayton Peace Agreement, reached in the USA on November 21, 1995 and signed in Paris on December 14, 1995 (Paris Peace Treaty for BiH), the democratic state of Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of two entities - the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Muslim-Croatian) and Republika Srpska (RS). Each of these entities has its own president, parliament and government. The authorities at the federal level include the Presidium, the Parliamentary Assembly and the Council of Ministers.

The highest federal legislative body is the Parliamentary Assembly, or Assembly of BiH. It consists of two chambers: the House of Peoples (15 deputies: 5 Muslims and 5 Croats from the Federation of BiH, 5 Serbs from the Republika Srpska, elected by the parliaments of the two entities) and the House of Representatives (42 deputies directly elected: 14 Muslims and 14 Croats from Federation of BiH, 14 Serbs from Republika Srpska). The term of parliament is limited to two years. All citizens who have reached the age of 18 have the right to vote, and those who work - 16 years.

The highest body of executive power is the BiH collegial Presidium. The Presidium consists of three popularly elected presidents: a Bosnian and a Croat from the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and a Serb from the Republika Srpska. Rotation of chairmen of the Presidium of BiH with a term of office of 4 years takes place every 8 months. The competence of the Presidium includes foreign policy issues, appointment of ambassadors and other international representatives of BiH, co-chairs of the Council of Ministers, submission of budget proposals to the Parliament, etc. The Chairman of the Council of Ministers is appointed by the Presidium and approved, like the entire government, by the House of Representatives. In February 2001, a coalition government was formed from representatives of the Social Democratic Party of BiH, the Party of Democratic Progress, the New Croatian Initiative, the For Bosnia and Herzegovina Party, and the Serbian People's Union. The minister and his two deputies must be of different nationalities. Government meetings are held alternately in Sarajevo, then in its suburbs, located on the territory of the Republika Srpska.

Along with the national (federal) authorities of BiH, there are own power structures (parliament, president and government) in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska.

Legislative power in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina belongs to the federal parliament, which consists of two chambers, which are elected by popular vote for 2 years (in the future - for 4 years). The House of Representatives includes 140 deputies, the House of Nations - 74 deputies (Bosnians - 30, Croats - 30, representatives of other nationalities - 14).

The highest executive bodies of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina include the institution of the presidency and the cabinet of ministers. Two candidates are elected for the presidency - from the Bosnians and from the Croats. One of them becomes vice president. There is an annual rotation of the president and vice president. The House of Peoples elects one Croat and one Bosniak as Prime Minister and Deputy Prime Minister of the Federation, who alternately act as Prime Minister for 4 years.

Legislative power in the Republika Srpska is exercised by the National Assembly, whose 83 deputies are elected by popular vote. The term of office of the National Assembly should be 4 years, but it is temporarily elected for 2 years.

Judicial system

The Constitutional Court consists of 9 members: 4 of them are elected by the House of Representatives of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2 by the National Assembly of the Republika Srpska, and 3 non-Bosnian members are appointed by the President of the European Court of Human Rights after consultation with the BiH Presidium. The Constitutional Court considers appeals to establish the constitutionality of laws adopted at the state level, and appeals sent from the main territorial entities. Each of these entities has a Supreme Court and lower courts (in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina - 10 cantonal courts and municipal courts; in the Republika Srpska - 5 municipal courts).

The supreme judiciary in modern BiH is under the control of the OSCE, which seeks to coordinate the work of the lower courts within the individual parts of the Federation.

Political parties and coalitions in Bosnia and Herzegovina

The Coalition for a United and Democratic BiH (FED) was formed on the basis of the Democratic Action Party. It also included representatives of the Liberal Party, the Civic Democratic Party and the Party for BiH. Has 17 seats in the House of Representatives (14 elected in the FBiH and 3 in the RS), as well as 68 deputies in the House of Representatives of the FBiH and 15 in the National Assembly of the RS.

The Union for Peace and Progress (SMP) is an election coalition formed in 1996 by the Independent Social Democratic Party (NSDP), the Socialist Party and the Social Liberal Party.

Sloga (Union) coalition - consists of the Socialist Party, the Serbian People's Union and the NSDP. Has 4 seats in the Federal House of Representatives and 28 in the National Assembly of the RS.

The Democratic Action Party (SDA) is the largest Muslim party in the federation. Created in 1990 by A. Izetbegovic and H. Silajdzic. Transformed from a multi-ethnic and federalist party into an ethnic and Muslim party. He advocates the political and economic unity of the country under the dominant position of Muslims, as well as cultural autonomy for ethnic groups. Chairman - A. Izetbegovich.

Croatian Democratic Commonwealth of BiH (HDZ) - 6 deputies in the Federal House of Representatives; 28 seats in the Federal House of Representatives of the FBiH and 1 seat in the National Assembly of the RS. Bosnian branch of the "parent" CDU, founded by F. Tudjman. Its political platform includes a demand for ethnic autonomy, with options ranging from the legalization of a Muslim-Croat federation to the formation of a confederal structure with Croatia. Supports the decentralization of the state of BiH at the political, economic and cultural levels. After the violent death of party leader Jojo Leutara, all CDU leaders decided to leave the federal, federal and local power structures. The representative in the BiH Presidium is Ante Jelavic. The chairman of the party is Bozho Rajic.

Serbian Democratic Party (SDP) - 4 deputies in the House of Representatives (all of them are elected in the RS) and 19 seats in the National Assembly of the RS. Adheres to nationalist orientations. One of its founders, R. Karadzic, after the entry into force of the Dayton Accords, was forced to withdraw from it. Leader - Dragan Kalinich.

Serbian Radical Party of the RS (SRP RS) - 2 seats in the Federal House of Representatives, 11 seats in the National Assembly of the RS. Founded by V. Sheshel, leader of a similar party in the FRY. Supports the international recognition of RS as an independent state. Leader - Nikola Poplashen.

The Serbian Unity Party (PSE) is an ultra-nationalist party. Leader - Zlatko Raznatovic.

Political parties in the Federation of BiH

Party for Bosnia and Herzegovina - founded in 1996 by the former prime minister under the rule of Izetbegovic and co-founder of the Democratic Action Party H. Silajdzic. Although the party is open to all ethnic minorities, it has a strong Muslim focus and holds strong positions in urban areas such as Tuzla and Sarajevo. Leader - Haris Silajdzic.

The Civic Democratic Party (DDP) is a center party, a member of the KCD coalition and is therefore represented in the federal parliament and the federal government.

Liberal Party (LP), leader - Rashim Kadic.

Croatian Peasants' Party (HKP) - 1 seat in the federal House of Representatives, but no deputy mandate in the federal parliament. Consistent supporter of the BiH state. The principles of the Bosnian HKP are close to social democratic, some of its leaders adhere to centrist positions. Leader - Ivo Komcic.

Democratic People's Union (DNS) - 1 seat in the federal House of Representatives and 3 seats in the federal parliament. CSN (previously known as the National Democratic Union) was founded in 1993. The leader is Fikret Abdich.

Republican Party (RP) - not represented in parliament, pursues a centrist line. Founded in 1994 in Sarajevo, the number of its members soon after its creation reached 12 thousand people. Leader - Stepan Klyuich.

The Bosnian Organization (BO) was founded in 1990 after leaving the SDA under the name of the Muslim-Bosnian Organization. At present, it is a multi-ethnic and multi-confessional liberal party, which opposes any ethnic domination, for the return of refugees to their places of former residence, for trans-ethnic and inter-ethnic cooperation. Leader - Adil Zulfikarpashich.

Liberal Bosnian Organization (LBO) - has no representation in Parliament. Founded in 1991. Leaders are Muhammed Filipović and Salih Foko. Bosnian Social Democratic Party (BSDP) - founded on February 27, 1999 as a result of the merger of two social democratic parties of the BiH Federation: the Social Democrats of BiH and the Social Democratic Party of BiH. The leader of the party is Z. Lagumdzhia.

Political parties in Republika Srpska

The Social Liberal Party (SLP) is a liberal-oriented party that does not have representation in parliament. Founded in 1992 in Banja Luka. Leaders - M. Zhivanovich and M. Tukic.

The Serbian Civil Committee (SCC) was established in 1994 to protect the rights of the Bosnian Serbs who lived in the territory of Duke-Bosna, and then in the FBiH. He advocates the recognition of the state-forming status of the Bosnian Serbs, similar to the status of the Muslim and Croat populations. Leader - Mirko Pejanovic.

Socialist Party of the RS (SP RS) - 2 seats in the federal parliament and 10 seats in the National Assembly of the RS. Leader - Zivko Radisic.

Serbian People's Union (SNS RS) - 12 seats in the National Assembly of the RS. It has evolved from a nationalist to a centrist party. Founder and leader - Bilyana Plavsic.

Independent Social Democratic Party (NSDP) - founded in February 1992 in Banja Luka. Western-oriented and focuses on cooperation with parties of other ethnic groups. Leader - Milorad Dodik.

Armed forces

Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina (AFBiH) Conscription into the armed forces was abolished in 2006. Male citizens of Bosnia and Herzegovina and over 18 years of age are eligible for voluntary military service. The service life is 4 months. Transfer to the reserve occurs after 15 years of service or upon reaching the age of 35.

At present, there are 1,180,000 people in the country fit for military service. Each of the entities of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska have their own armed forces and are completed respectively by Bosnians and Croats in the first case and Serbs in the second. Each of these armies has an air fleet and an air defense unit. In 2000 military expenditures in BiH amounted to 2000 approx. 8% of GDP, and the armed forces numbered 40 thousand people. The country's military leadership believes that it has every reason to join NATO. BiH is included in the NATO program "Partnership for Peace".

ECONOMY

Until 1990 BiH remained one of the least developed republics of the SFRY. Nevertheless, the mining industry was developed here, including the extraction of coal, iron ore, and rock salt. Before the outbreak of hostilities, there were enterprises of mechanical engineering (production of machine tools, bicycles, agricultural machines), ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical, timber and light industries.

The civil war (April 1992 - November 1995) severely damaged the economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Approximately 80% of light industry enterprises, which dominated the country's economy, were damaged or destroyed, oil imports decreased due to the blockade of Croatian ports on the Adriatic Sea. Unemployment has reached its highest levels since World War II. During the war years, BiH's economy and social sphere were almost completely destroyed. The total material damage is estimated by various sources from 20 to 80 billion dollars. industrial production decreased sharply and amounted to approx. 15% pre-war.

After 1995, large-scale international assistance was focused on the process of economic recovery, although the consequences of interethnic conflict still continue to have a negative impact on its development.

The restoration of the country's economy is carried out mainly within the framework of the international reconstruction program, which provided for the allocation of 5.1 billion dollars for these purposes in 1996-2000.

In 2000, GDP amounted to 6.5 billion dollars (in 1999 - 6.2 billion dollars); per capita - $ 1,770. The country's GDP in 1998 was equal to a quarter of the pre-war level, and industrial production - 10-15%. In 1996, the structure of GDP was dominated by the service sector - 58%, the share of industry was 23%, agriculture - 19%. Despite high GDP growth rates (in 1996 - 50%, in 1997 - 37%, in 1998 - 28%, in 2000 - 8%), its pre-war level has not yet been reached.

The mining, metallurgical, oil refining, textile industries, the production of components for automobiles and the aviation industry, household appliances, etc. are gradually being restored. By the beginning of 2000, with the help of the German Volkswagen and the Czech Skoda, the production of cars began; due to their low cost, they are in demand in neighboring countries. One of the main investors in the industry is Slovenia.

The inflation rate in 2000 was estimated at 8% (in 1997 - 5%). The economically active population is 1026 thousand people, the unemployment rate is 35-40%. The emerging growth of industrial production in 1999-2000 reached 10%. BiH produced 2.6 billion kWh of electricity in 1999. Hydroelectric power plants produce 61% of electricity, thermal power plants - 39%. Electricity production is estimated at 2585 million kWh, consumption - at 2684 kWh, export - 150 million kWh, import - 430 million kWh.

Agriculture is the main branch of the country's economy. The main crops are tobacco, sugar beet, corn and wheat. The border regions with Serbia are famous for the production of fruits, mainly plums, in the north - viticulture is developed. In the mountains, the population raises sheep, and on the plains, cattle. Forest resources are an important component of the country's economy.

Prior to the civil war, BiH had a 1,020 km long railway network (of which about 800 km were electrified). The length of motor roads reached 21,850 km (about 14,000 km with hard surface). The Sava River was navigable for a considerable length. All transport routes have been badly damaged as a result of hostilities and require restoration, and the Sava channel needs to be cleared. An oil pipeline with a length of 174 km and a gas pipeline with a length of 90 km run through the territory of BiH. There are 9 airports in the country with paved runways.

Foreign trade is reviving: in 2000, exports of goods and services were estimated at $950 million, imports at $2,460 million. The main export partners are Croatia, Switzerland, Italy, Germany, and Croatia, Slovenia, Germany, and Italy are import partners. Since 2001, trade relations with Russia have been established. In 1999, external debt amounted to $3.4 billion.

BiH has a steady budget deficit. In 1999, budget revenues amounted to $1.9 billion and expenditures to $2.2 billion.

Analysis of the macroeconomic situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the first half of 2011

Although exports from Bosnia and Herzegovina scored in the first half of 2011 compared to 2010 increased by more than 20 percent, imports increased almost in equal proportions as a result of a significant trade deficit. Although exports to CEFTA countries, mutual trade could negatively show the unilateral imposition of duties on parts of Kosovo. The inflow of foreign direct investment increased, but reached only 122,700,000 and deep in the pre-crisis years.

According to the published results of foreign exchange trade of Bosnia and Herzegovina with the world from January to June 2011, turnover totaling 12,040 million km (6.16 billion), including exports of 4.74 billion km (2420000000. EUR), which is 20.5% more than the same period in 2010, while imports 7,300,000 km (3.7 billion), an increase of 18.2% more. The trade balance deficit reached 3.3 billion km (1.68 billion). Coverage of imports by exports reached the level of 55.2%. The degree of coverage of imports by exports has been gradually decreasing since the beginning of 2011.

The main trading partners of Bosnia and Herzegovina to Germany are exports and imports to Croatia. Among the top 10 importing countries are the USA, Russia and China. The US imports most cars, Russia oil and gas, and China in particular consumer goods of all kinds. Although the mutual foreign trade turnover of Bosnia and Herzegovina with the CEFTA countries in 2011 compared to 2010 increased over the first six months by more than 20%, these values ​​may be affected in the second half of the unilateral actions of the Kosovo government (the introduction of a 10% duty on imported products from Bosnia and Herzegovina), which is due to the non-recognition of Kosovo and Kosovo customs documents, Bosnia and Herzegovina. In Kosovo, the majority of imported products are steel, mineral fuels and oils, wood and its products (26 million euros in 2010). It imports most of the raw materials of leather, rubber, vinegar and various alcoholic beverages (1 million in 2010).

According to Czech statistics, the foreign trade turnover achieved between the Republic and Bosnia and Herzegovina is 71,900,000 (compared to 2010 index 102%), exports 57,300,000 (index 101.6%), imports 14,700,000 (index 104.2%). The balance of 42700000 is at the level of 2010.

Industrial production in June 2011 compared with the average of 2010 increased by 7% compared with the same month in 2010 even by 10.4% compared with May 2010 by 2.4%. The manufacturing industry increased in June compared to the average of 2010 by 11% compared to June 2010 7.3%.

The unemployment rate at the end of May 2011 reached 43.1%. A total of 526,791 unemployed people were registered, which is 0.4% more than at the end of 2010. Compared to April 2010, the unemployment rate increased by 0.2%. For legal entities, a total of 694,191 people were employed in May 2011, of which 282,666 were women. The economically active population is currently 1120 thousand people, which is significantly less than in 2008, when there were 1620 thousand people. Economically inactive population total 1,430,000

Annual inflation reached in June 2011 at the level of 3.8% and amounted to 0.5% per month. Bosnia and Herzegovina within the framework of the Western Balkan countries with very low inflation, especially in comparison with Serbia, where inflation in Lately jumped to 12.7%.

Relatively good record of the tourism sector. Only in June 2011 visited Bosnia and Herzegovina, almost 75 thousand tourists, which is 41.8% more than in May 2011 and 1.5% more than in May 2010. The main share of tourists from the countries of the former Yugoslavia, Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, but also increases the number of tourists from Western Europe, Turkey and abroad, especially from the Far East (Japan, South Korea), the number of tourists from China has recently increased.

The bank's total deposits were 14,780 million at the end of the half-KM (7.55 billion), up 0.41% since the end of 2011. Savings of the population increased by 3.9% and 6790 thousand km (3.47 billion). The limit for deposit insurance in Bosnia and Herzegovina is 35,000 km (17,895 EUR). This limit is 98.7% covered by depositors and 68% of all deposits. Interest on short-term corporate loans is currently 7.5% and 10.2% on consumer loans. In addition, rates on deposit accounts in KM for the corporate sector decreased by 3.5% and 2.9% for consumer deposits for the population.

Gross GDP for 2010 at current prices amounts to 14.4 billion km (7.36 billion). GDP per capita is 6371 km (3 257 EUR) and represents 30% of the EU average, which means that Bosnia and Herzegovina is one of the last places in Europe in this comparison.

Recently funds mass media Articles are increasingly appearing from local economists and analysts that point to the fact that the rate of the Bosnian KM marks at a fixed level of 1.95583 per euro is overvalued and no longer realistic (talking about the real exchange rate to 1:4). As a result of the lack of competitiveness of goods from Bosnia and Herzegovina, an increase in the trade deficit and a decrease in the level of coverage of imports by exports, a small increase in industrial production and high unemployment. Another problem is high government spending focused solely on consumption and a small influx of foreign direct investment. As a result of slow economic growth. Rumors of a possible course of treatment are flatly dismissed by the governor of the National Bank, who considers the fixed exchange rate of convertible marks to the euro as one of several fixed BA economy anchors. Some politicians have also begun demanding a second rate of VAT on "social goods", despite warnings from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) that such an adjustment would not produce the expected results (lower prices) but would only complicate the administration of tax collection.

The poor economic situation adds to the inability of local politicians to agree after almost 10 months to build a national government, the adoption of adequate and much needed economic reforms and restrictions on public spending and claims that are literally stifling economic growth. Because the exploded view of the central government and the global recognition of the financial framework 2011-2013 have BA, the consent of the European Commission has committed to allocate macroeconomic assistance in the amount of 100 million euros of loans at very favorable interest rates. The risk is also pumping 96 million euros for projects financed from the IPA in 2011. Due to the refusal to approve the 2011 budget and budgetary framework, the IMF, World Bank and EBRD will block their funds for the next two years. All this causes serious concern of foreign investors in terms of continued development in the future.

Reflected by political and economic instability, there is cautious and very little FDI inflow into the country, which is one of the lowest in the region. First of all, these reasons were the reason for the recent decision of Standard & Poor's outlook to change the economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina from stable to negative. Nothing in this fact changes the fact that, according to the Central Bank, the financial situation in the country is improving slightly. To achieve the expected GDP growth of 2.8% in 2011, it is necessary to be ready as soon as the central government, which has implemented significant economic reforms. Given that time is running out and that the result of political wrangling is likely to be a rather broad coalition government with a weak mandate, the country is in for a rather difficult economic time. (Source: Embassy of the Russian Republic)

Industry

By the 1960s, Bosnia and Herzegovina accounted for 99% of iron ore production and 100% of coke production, 40% of coal production, 2/3 of pig iron production and 50% of steel smelting throughout Yugoslavia. Bosnia and Herzegovina ranked first in Yugoslavia in timber industry and played a significant role in the chemical industry (in the years of the SFRY, only Bosnia and Herzegovina had the production of soda (Lukavats) and chlorine).

Heavy industry was located mainly in the east of Bosnia, between the rivers Sava, Drina and Bosna. In the south of this region, north and northwest of Sarajevo, large lignite mines produced most of Yugoslavia's coal. Brown coal and lignite were mined in the areas of Tuzla, Zenitsa, Kakani, Breza, Banovichi and others.

The iron mines of Varesh and Lyubiya and a manganese mine, thermal power plants were also located here. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the main center of ferrous metallurgy in Yugoslavia was located - the city of Zenica, where there is a plant with a full cycle of metallurgical production. There were two more metallurgical plants in Bosnia and Herzegovina: an old plant in the city of Vares and a new plant in the city of Ilyas. Bauxites were mined, mainly for export.

By the end of the 1950s, in Herzegovina on the Neretva River, near the city of Yablanitsa, the most powerful hydroelectric power station in Yugoslavia at that time was put into operation. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2/5 of all hydropower resources of the SFRY were concentrated.

In the south of Bosnia and Herzegovina, where there is cheap energy produced by hydroelectric power plants on the Neretva and Vrbas rivers, electrochemical enterprises (Jajce) and an aluminum plant were established. Coke production was carried out at plants in Zenica and Lukavac. A factory for the production of nitrogen fertilizers was located in Gorazde.

The products of the timber industry complex of Bosnia and Herzegovina were both for domestic consumption in the SFRY and for export. Large sawmills were located mainly in the western and central parts of the country: Zavidovichi (a factory of assembly houses), Banja Luka, Sarajevo, Drvar. Of general Yugoslav importance was the production of tobacco in Bosnia and Herzegovina, which took place in four relatively large factories - in Sarajevo, Banja Luka, Travnik and Mostar.

Bosnia and Herzegovina ranked first in the SFRY in the production of pulp, pulp mills were located in Prijedor, Banja Luka, Maglaj and Drvar.

The country had mechanical engineering, food and light industry. The most important industrial hubs of Bosnia and Herzegovina were Sarajevo-Zenica, where coal was mined, ferrous metallurgy and mechanical engineering developed; Tuzla-Banovichi, specializing in coal and salt mining, chemical industry and mechanical engineering.

SOCIETY

Social Security

In 1996, there were 4,500 doctors and 12,000 nurses in Bosnia and Herzegovina. By 2000, with the assistance of international organizations, many destroyed hospitals were restored and new ones were built. Throughout the 1990s, the international community provided humanitarian assistance to the country.

Religion

Up to the X century. the population of most of Bosnia was not converted to Christianity, although in Herzegovina this happened quite early. The territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina belonged to the jurisdiction of the Western (Roman) Church. The medieval Bosnian state (12th-15th centuries) was the center of Bogomilism. The last Bosnian kings were Catholics and contributed to the strengthening of the influence of the Franciscan order. The easternmost regions of the medieval state, especially the eastern part of Herzegovina, remained mostly Orthodox. The conquest of Bosnia by the Turks in the XV-XVI centuries. accompanied by mass conversion of the population to Islam. Many Bosnian nobles (Serbs or Croats) were forced to take this step in order to preserve property, privileges and a dominant position. The results of the Turkish occupation were as follows: thousands of Bosnians of both sexes were sold into slavery or taken into Janissaries. The Turks announced that those who converted to Islam received tax exemptions and other privileges: the Slavic nobility who converted to Islam was equated with the Turkish nobility. However, the majority of Bosnian Serbs and Croats remained Christian.

At the turn of 1520-30, according to the Turkish historian Omer Lutfi Barkan, in the Bosnian Sandjak, the population was 38.7% Muslim. In Herzegovina, conquered by the Turks only in 1482, Islamization was less active. In 1624, the Albanian priest Peter Masarechi wrote that 150,000 Catholics, 75,000 Orthodox and 450,000 Muslims live in Bosnia. After the Austrians conquered Hungary and Croatia from the Turks, Muslims from these territories in 1690 moved to Bosnia. In 1875, an uprising of Christian peasants against Turkish rule began in Herzegovina, which spread to some regions of Bosnia, and in 1878 Bosnia was annexed to Austria-Hungary. According to the Austrian census of 1879, the population was 42.88% Orthodox, 38.75% Muslim, and 18.08% Catholic.

In 1910, for 1,898,044 inhabitants, there were 43.49% Orthodox, 32.25% Muslims and 22.87% Catholics. In the cities of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Muslims predominated, followed by Catholics and only then Orthodox. The upward trend in the proportion of Orthodox and Catholics, while the proportion of Muslims fell, continued after the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the incorporation of Bosnia into Yugoslavia.

The collapse of Yugoslavia led to an aggravation of the confrontation between the three nations speaking the same language and having a common origin, but professing a different religion. In October 1991, the Croatian and Muslim deputies of the Bosnian parliament adopted a memorandum on the sovereignty of the republic. In November 1991, the Bosnian Serbs voted in a referendum for the creation of a renewed Yugoslav state together with Serbia. On January 9, 1992, the Republic of Serbian Bosnia and Herzegovina was proclaimed, and on July 3, 1992, the Croatian state of Herceg-Bosnia was proclaimed. In the interethnic and interreligious war, about 100 thousand people died, 1.4 million became refugees (most have now returned), destroyed and damaged a large number of mosques, Orthodox and Catholic churches. The proportion of Muslims in the population of Sarajevo has increased from 50% to 90%.

At the end of 1995, NATO peacekeepers were stationed in the country, the Muslim-Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (51% of the territory) and the Republika Srpska (49%) were created.

The number of Catholics during the war fell more than the number of Muslims or Orthodox Christians: many Croat refugees remained in Croatia.

At present, adherence to one or another confession is determined mainly by nationality: Serbs - profess Orthodoxy (31%), Croats - Catholicism (15%). Serbs and Croats who profess Islam call themselves Bosniaks or Muslims (40%).

CULTURE

Education system

In 1990-1991, 720 thousand people studied in the country's schools. In the first half of the 1990s, educational institutions were badly damaged as a result of hostilities. With the return to peaceful life, the government first of all took up the restoration of the public education system. It includes preschools, basic compulsory schools, general secondary schools, special secondary schools, technical secondary schools, and universities. Kindergartens are attended by children aged 3 to 7 years. In BiH compulsory 8-year education. Basic compulsory schools have two levels: for children aged 7 to 11 and for children aged 11 to 15. Upon completion of the basic school, adolescents aged 15 to 19 can continue their education in a 4-year general secondary school (gymnasium) or in 4-year special secondary schools, which are divided into pedagogical, artistic, musical, religious and technical. A profession can also be acquired at a three-year vocational school.

Graduates of secondary school for higher education, according to the results of entrance examinations, can enter one of the four universities (Sarajevo, Banja Luka, Mostar or Tuzla), one of the academies (including pedagogical ones in Zenica and Bihac) or open at the beginning 2000s Special Pedagogical College in Bijeljina. Upon graduation, the graduate receives a diploma of higher education of the 1st degree (2-3 years of study), 2nd degree of professional education in the field of various sciences and arts (4-5 years of study), 3rd degree ( master's degree with the preparation of a research project), 4th degree (doctors with the defense of a dissertation). Kindergarten teachers are trained by two-year pedagogical academies. In addition, these academies train teachers for basic and secondary schools. Universities graduate teachers of special secondary schools.

Sarajevo University was founded in 1949. Prior to the military events of 1992-1995, more than 30,000 students annually studied at its 25 faculties. As a result of the bombing, 5 faculties and a library with 1.8 million books were completely destroyed, 9 faculties were largely destroyed. Other universities were opened in the 1970s. The heavily damaged Mostar University, which included the Western (Croatian) branch and the Eastern branch, was evacuated to Neum and Jablanitsa, respectively.

The Academy of Sciences was established in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1966. There are several research institutes in BiH, including the Eastern Institute and the Balkan Institute.

Literature

Early books in Bosnia and Herzegovina were written in the Glagolitic and Cyrillic alphabets and are works of religious content. In addition to church literature, many records and fragments of individual documents have been preserved. After the Ottoman conquest, literary activity continued within the religious communities. Bosnian Muslims created in Arabic, Turkish, Persian and Croatian. The Talmudic works of the Sephardic Jews of Sarajevo and Travnik are known.

National revival of Croats and Serbs in the 19th century. contributed to the activities of many writers of Bosnia. Franciscan monk Ivan Frano Jukic, editor of the first literary magazine in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bosani Friend, gained fame among Croats. Among the writers, a representative of early Serbian romanticism, a native of Sarajevo, Sima Milutinovic (Sarailia, 1791-1847), who spent most of his life in Serbia, stands out.

At the end of the 19th century the National Museum in Sarajevo, libraries were opened, scientific societies were created. At the same time, the number of literate people in Bosnia barely exceeded a tenth of the total population. The Austro-Hungarian government decided to change the situation and after 1908 introduced compulsory universal education.

Notable writers of the 20th century who came from Bosnia were Travnik native Ivo Andric (1892-1975), Nobel Prize winner in 1961, and Mehmed Meša Selimović (born in 1910 in Tuzla).

The long years of Ottoman rule have left their mark on the culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Islamic motifs are clearly expressed in the architecture of inns, bridges and other structures. Islamic manuscripts, decorated with colored drawings, have survived. Islamic melodies can be traced in Bosnian folk music, primarily in lyric songs.

Media

The largest editions of BiH are the daily morning newspaper "Oslobodzhene" ("Liberation", 56,000 copies) and the daily evening newspaper "Vecherne Novine" (15,000). The State Radio and Television of Bosnia and Herzegovina broadcasts on four radio channels and two television channels.

Cuisine of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosnian cuisine was formed as a result of mixing South Slavic, German, Turkish and Mediterranean culinary traditions. The basis of local dishes is meat and vegetables, and if Turkish influence is clearly visible in meat products, then in terms of vegetables and herbs, the Bosnians will not yield to their neighbors in the Mediterranean region. And from the Slavic peoples inherited an abundance of dairy products, primarily cheese, and the widespread use of bread and cereals.

National holidays

Official holidays and weekends in Bosnia and Herzegovina
January 1-2 - New Year.
January 6-7 - Orthodox Christmas.
January 9 - Republic Day in the Serbian part of the country.
January 14-15 - Old New Year.
January 27 - St. Sava's Day.
February 2 - Eid al-Adha.
March 1 Independence Day.
April 5 - National holiday.
April 15 - Army Day.
April-May - Easter.
May 1 - Labor Day.
May 9 - Victory Day.
August 15 - Velika Gospa (Assumption of the Blessed Virgin).
November 1 - All Saints Day.
November 25 - Day of the Republic of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
December 25 - Catholic Christmas.

In addition to the above dates, the government of Bosnia and Herzegovina allocates 2 days a year for religious ceremonies, regardless of religion. These days are not considered official holidays, but are non-working days.

Festivals and holidays in Bosnia and Herzegovina

The Winter Festival (February 21 - March 7) is a whole series of festive events accompanied by theatrical and musical performances. In March, the Festival of Bosnian Orchestras is held. In June-July, the Days of Sarajevo Culture are celebrated. July 12-16 is the Week of Language, accompanied by a variety of ethnic performances, as well as various scientific and practical conferences. On August 19-27, Sarajevo hosts the annual Sarajevo Film Festival, and in September the theater festival TheaterFest takes place. November 2-6 is the music festival Jazz-Fest in Sarajevo.

HISTORY

Early history. Central Bosnia was one of the areas in Europe where the art of ceramics appeared already in the Neolithic. Traces of the artistic and material culture of that time were found near Butmir (near Sarajevo), so the Neolithic culture of Bosnia is usually called Butmir.
In the III millennium BC. a number of tribes who owned iron tools and weapons invaded the area and destroyed the Butmir culture. Nevertheless, very little is known about the past of Bosnia before the appearance in it in the Hallstatt era (II and I millennium BC) of the Illyrian tribes. The Illyrians were the main inhabitants of the country until the 4th century. BC, when the Celts moved here from the north. In the 1st century BC. The present territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina was occupied by the Romans, who turned it into part of the large province of Illyricum.
The linguistic map of the Balkans in general and of Bosnia and Herzegovina in particular acquired its modern form in the 6th and 7th centuries, when Slavic tribes, mainly Croats and Serbs, captured the western parts of the Balkan Peninsula that belonged to the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, leaving it with fortified Adriatic cities, and then Slavicized the Illyrian population.
Middle Ages.
Bosnia was the last of the regions of the South Slavs to create their own state and the last to be converted to Christianity. The geographical position of Bosnia isolated its central part from the influence of the cultures of neighboring countries - Byzantium from the south, the culture of Germany and the Holy Roman Empire from the north, Italy from the west.
The original Bosnia, the region of the upper reaches of the Bosna River, was in vassalage from Raska (Serbia), but after 960 AD. became a self-governing territory. In 1018 Byzantium established nominal power over Bosnia. At the beginning of the 12th c. Hungary occupied part of Bosnia, including the Rama river valley. The Hungarian king received the title "Ramae rex" (King of Rama, i.e. Bosnia) and appointed bans (deputies of the king) to govern the province. After a period of Byzantine control, ban Kulin of Bosnia (reigned 1180-1204) again recognized the rule of Hungary. Nevertheless, he behaved like an independent ruler, granting trading privileges to merchants from Dubrovnik, encouraging the resettlement of artisans, miners and craftsmen from the coastal cities of Croatia and the mining of silver and iron ore.
In 1203, the papal legate ordered Kulin and the elders of the monastic communities, called simply Krstians (Christians), to renounce heresy and recognize the supremacy of the Roman Catholic Church. This meant that the Bogomil heresy already existed in Bosnia. After Kulin's death, Hungary undertook a series of crusades against the "Bosnian heretics" and in 1250 forced the bans to submit to her again.
For one century, the bani were associated with Hungary and the Catholic Church. The economic boom strengthened the political ambitions of the Bosnian bans and aristocrats. Tvrtko I Kotromanich (ruled 1353-1391) began his reign as a ban and vassal of Hungary, but in 1377 he crowned himself king.
In the 13th-14th centuries. the bans and kings of Bosnia expanded the territory, which became the last large medieval kingdom of the southern Slavs. Their expansion led to an increase in the population of the country, mainly due to the Croats, and after the acquisition of Herzegovina (Hum or Hum land), the country received access to the Adriatic.
After the death of Tvrtko, the state fell into decay. Hungary again captured the central and northern parts of Dalmatia, which Tvrtko acquired in 1390. In addition, in the 15th century. Bosnian kings lost power over the feudal lords. Hum, in particular, was ruled by representatives of local dynasties, such as Sandal Hranic and his nephew Stepan Vukcic. The latter in 1449 chose the title "Duke" (Duke), and after that the medieval Hum began to be called Herzegovina.
Ottoman rule.
In 1463, most of the fragmented Bosnia fell under the rule of the Turks; Herzegovina resisted a little longer, but in 1482 both provinces were united by the Turks under a single administration. The last Bosnian territories (the Jajce region) passed to the Turks in 1528, after the victory of the Ottomans over the Hungarians in the Battle of Mohacs (1526). All of Bosnia and Herzegovina remained under the rule of the Ottomans until 1718, when part of its territory went to the Habsburgs for two decades.
After the conquest by the Turks, the Bosnian Bogomils were converted to Islam en masse. Some joined the church Christians, in particular the Catholics. This massive conversion, unique in its scope, gave Bosnia a special status in Ottoman Empire. The territory of Bosnia was retained and expanded with a number of Croatian territories. The Muslim elite of Bosnia received the status of hereditary nobility.
Bosnia's religious landscape has become more complex since migrants called Vlachs, who identified themselves as Orthodox Christians, entered the service of the Ottoman Empire's border guards in northwestern Bosnia. Over time, they began to identify themselves with the Serbs. In addition, during the Ottoman rule, a significant proportion of the Catholic population of Herzegovina converted to Orthodoxy.
After several centuries of struggle with landowners-feudal lords, the government in 1839 declared the equality of all subjects of the Ottoman Empire before the law and abolished the feudal military system.
In 1848, the governor of Bosnia abolished the so-called. corve - free labor of serfs for their landowner. Less wealthy landowners (yep) did not want to lose the corve, but their rebellion was crushed (1849-1851). The feudal landowners completely reconciled with the government when it issued a decree (1859) declaring the feudal lords the full owners of the land and turning the peasants into sharecroppers. The law of 1859 gave the peasants freedom; voluntarily or under pressure, many of them renounced their rights to lease land. In 1875 there were several hundred beys or large landowners, more than 6,000 aga, 77,000 peasant families (mostly Muslim) and 85,000 families of sharecroppers, mostly Orthodox (Serbs) and Catholics (Croats).
Some landowners strove to receive both Corve labor and higher rents, which were granted to them under the law of 1848. In addition, a poor harvest in Herzegovina in 1875 led to famine. But the uprising that broke out in 1875 was both political and economic. Ideologically, it broke up into several currents that spoke out for unification with Serbia, for unification with Croatia or for autonomy. The Berlin Congress (1878) transferred Bosnia and Herzegovina under the rule of Austria-Hungary.
Austro-Hungarian rule.
During the Austro-Hungarian rule of Veniamin von Kalai (1883-1903), the economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina developed intensively. Railways were built, banks were founded, woodworking factories and tobacco factories were opened. However, dissatisfaction with the policy of Kalai, who established a semi-colonial regime based on bureaucratic cadres who arrived from Austria-Hungary, also grew. In addition, Bosnia and Herzegovina was increasingly at the center of rivalry between Croats and Serbs. The Austro-Hungarian administration hindered the province's ties with Croatia and encouraged regional national sentiments.
The struggle for Bosnia and Herzegovina reached its climax in 1903 with the accession to the throne in Serbia of Peter I Karageorgievich. In an environment of growing Serbian nationalism, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, bringing Europe to the brink of war.
Even before the annexation, control of the Serbian nationalist movement in Bosnia and Herzegovina began to gradually shift from conservatives to radicals. The younger generation of Serbian nationalists wanted to achieve unification with Serbia, using terror among other methods. The terrorists, who were assisted by Serbian military intelligence, after the failure of a number of assassination attempts on Austro-Hungarian officials, managed to kill Archduke Franz Ferdinand in June 1914. This political assassination in Sarajevo prompted Austria-Hungary to declare war on Serbia and unleashed the First World War.
Yugoslav period.
At the end of the First World War, Austria-Hungary collapsed, and Bosnia and Herzegovina became part of the new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (in 1929-1945 - the Kingdom of Yugoslavia). In the interwar period, the dominant Muslim party - the Yugoslav Muslim Organization (YUMO) - fought for the autonomy of Bosnia and Herzegovina, but King Alexander Karageorgievich after the announcement of the royal dictatorship in 1929 divided Bosnia and Herzegovina into several banovinas. In 1939, Yugoslav Prime Minister Dragisa Cvetkovic reached an agreement with Vladko Macek, the leader of the Croatian opposition, to create an autonomous banovina of Croatia. Subsequently, Croatian-majority parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina were incorporated into Croatia. This strategic mistake demoralized many Muslims and encouraged both Serbian and Croatian nationalists to consider the rest of Bosnia as a legitimate part of Serbia.
During World War II, Germany and its allies divided Yugoslavia into several regions, incorporating Bosnia and Herzegovina into the independent state of Croatia, an Axis satellite state led by the Ustashe fascist movement. This period was characterized by the persecution of Serbs by the Ustaše and the killing of Muslims by Serbian Chetniks.
Post-war Bosnia and Herzegovina had the status of a republic in the Yugoslav federation, created on the Soviet model by Marshal Josip Broz Tito. During the first post-war years until 1966, Serbs dominated the governing bodies of the republic, who continued to persecute Croatian and Muslim nationalists, as well as all religious communities. After 1966, Tito increasingly relied on the communist leaders of Bosnia and Herzegovina, who took a hard line to nullify the ambitions of both Serbia and Croatia. Tito simultaneously supported the Bosnian Muslims as an already established national group, creating an increasingly favorable position for them as a price for compliance with his regime. After Tito's death in 1980, Serbian claims to Bosnia began to grow.

The history of Bosnia and Herzegovina covers the period from the moment of the appearance of man in the current territory of this country to the present day. Despite this, the state itself arose only in the Middle Ages. Bosnia and Herzegovina gained independence in 1992.

In the 6th-7th centuries, the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina was settled by the Slavs.
In the XII century, the Bosnian Principality was formed (from the XIV century a kingdom, including Herzegovina).
Since 1463, the territory of Bosnia, and since 1482 - and Herzegovina under the rule of the Ottoman Empire.
After the uprising of 1875-1877, it was occupied by Austria-Hungary (annexed in 1908). See Bosnian Crisis.
Since 1918, as part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (since 1929 - Yugoslavia).
In 1941, it was occupied by German troops and included in the fascist Independent State of Croatia. During the war of 1941-1945. liberated by the troops of the People's Liberation Army of Yugoslavia under the command of Josip Broz Tito and in November 1945 included in Yugoslavia as a federal republic.
In the spring of 1992, she announced her withdrawal from the SFRY. Adopted the official name of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, in May 1992 adopted by the UN.
In mid-1992, there was a sharp aggravation of interethnic conflicts, which led to the Bosnian War.
November 21, 1995 in Dayton (USA) initialed peace agreements to resolve the Bosnian conflict. Signed in Paris on 14 December 1995. Official name changed to Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Since the signing of the Dayton Accords, peace in the country is still fragile.

It is located in the southeast of Europe, on the Balkan Peninsula. It borders Croatia in the north and west, Montenegro in the southeast, and Serbia in the east.

The name of the country comes from the name of the river Bosna and the Hungarian he-rceg- "voivode". Capital. Sarajevo.

Official name: Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Capital: Sarajevo

The area of ​​the land: 51.1 thousand sq. km

Total population: 4.5 million people

Administrative division: Consists of two historical regions: Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Form of government: Republic.

Head of State: Chairman of the presidium, consisting of three members (Bosnian, Serb, Croat), who alternately replace each other in office every 8 months.

Composition of the population: Serbs 31%, Bosniaks 49% (Muslim Bosniaks), Croats 14%, others 0.6%

Official language: Bosnian (Bosanian), Serbian, Croatian

Religion: 40% - Muslims, 31% - Orthodox, 15% - Catholics, 14% - adherents of other faiths - 14%.

Internet domain: .ba

Mains voltage: ~230 V, 50 Hz

Phone country code: +387

Country barcode: 387

Climate

Moderate continental. The overall picture of the country's natural and climatic conditions is heterogeneous - in fact, here you can observe a wide variety of microclimatic zones associated with the features of the local relief - even neighboring sections of the same valley can differ markedly from each other in weather due to different topography. The characteristic features of the local climate also include a rapid change in local weather during the day, which is associated with different heating of the mountain slopes under the influence of sunlight, changing its azimuth and angle of incidence during the day.

The average temperature in summer in the valleys is from +16 to +27 C, and up to +10-21 in mountainous areas (in the capital, the average temperature in July is +21 C). In winter, from 0 C to -7 C, respectively (in the capital in January, about -1 C, but the temperature can drop to -16 C). Precipitation falls from 400 (eastern slopes of the mountains) to 1500 (western) mm per year, mainly in summer and early winter.

Geography

Bosnia and Herzegovina is a mountainous country located in the heart of the Balkan Peninsula in southeastern Europe. It borders with Croatia in the north, south and west (the total length of the border is 932 km), with Serbia in the east and with Montenegro in the south. A long and narrow "neumsky corridor" stretches between the borders of Croatia and Montenegro to the Adriatic coast (the coastline is only 20 km wide).

Bosnia occupies the northern part of the federation, along the valley of the Sava River and its tributaries. Herzegovina is located to the south, in the Neretva river basin. The Serbian Republic occupies the northeastern part of the country adjacent to Serbia. The total area of ​​the country is 51.1 thousand square meters. km.

Flora and fauna

Vegetable world

Forests occupy 41% of the country's territory. Indigenous broad-leaved forests are almost not preserved on the northern plains, which are currently occupied by agricultural land. In the north, in the foothills and on the slopes of the mountains up to a height of approx. 500 m grow oak and hornbeam forests with an admixture of maple and linden. In the central regions, beech trees are common, and above 800-900 m above sea level. - beech-fir forests with an admixture of maple, pine and spruce. In the upper mountain belt, above 1600–1700 m a.s.l., subalpine meadows are common. In the subtropics in the south-west of the country, evergreen forests (maquis) and deciduous shrubs are common up to a height of 300-400 m, higher in the mountains - forests of southern species of oak, hornbeam and maple.

Animal world

In the mountains of Bosnia and Herzegovina, there are chamois, red deer, roe deer, brown bears, wolves, wild boars, lynxes, forest cats, otters, martens, and many hares. Lizards, snakes, turtles are common in karst areas. The avifauna is rich. From large birds there are eagles, falcons, capercaillie. The mouth of the Neretva River is characterized by swampy landscapes. There are great and little egrets, various waterfowl, and birds of prey - golden eagle, greater spotted eagle, white-tailed eagle.

Banks and currency

Convertible mark (KM or BAM), equal to 100 pfennigs (fenigs). The convertible mark is equated to the euro in the proportion of 1KM = 0.51129 euros. There are banknotes in circulation in denominations of 200, 100, 50, 20, 10, 5, 1 and 0.5 marks (the latter is gradually withdrawn from circulation since March 31, 2003), as well as coins in denominations of 2 and 1 mark, 10, 20 and 50 pfennigs. Both federal units of the country issue their own versions of banknotes, on Bosnian stamps all inscriptions are made in Latin, on Serbian stamps - in Cyrillic. But the colors and denominations of banknotes are the same, and banknotes of all issues are freely circulated throughout the country.

The Croatian kuna and the Serbian dinar are in circulation in the areas adjacent to their respective borders. US dollars and euros are virtually ubiquitous, although in many Serbian areas, dollars are practically worthless, usually only large hotels and banks accept them.

Banks are open from Monday to Friday from 08.00 to 19.00.

It is advisable to exchange money only in official institutions - banks, hotels and exchange offices, since the percentage of fraud is very high when exchanging on the street. All receipts received when exchanging money should be kept, as they will be required for the reverse exchange when leaving the country.

Using credit cards is difficult. You can withdraw money from them only in the offices of the capital's banks, as well as in some hotels, restaurants, post offices and shops in the capital and Medugorye. Increasingly, ATMs began to appear, but for the most part they serve only Maestro and Visa cards.

Travel checks can only be cashed at bank offices, but the procedure for verifying their authenticity is extremely lengthy.

Useful information for tourists

Tipping is customary in taxis and expensive restaurants. It is advisable to exchange money only in official institutions - banks, hotels, exchange offices, because the possibility of fraud is high.

The standard of living in the country is extremely low, so it is not recommended to carry large amounts of cash with you in order to avoid robbery.

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA (Bosna i Hercegovina).

General information

Bosnia and Herzegovina is a state in Southeastern Europe, in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula. In the north, west and south it borders on Croatia, in the east and southeast - on Serbia and Montenegro; in the south it has access to the Adriatic Sea (about 20 km of coastline). The area is 51.1 thousand km 2. Population 4452.9 thousand people (2005). The capital is Sarajevo. The official languages ​​are Bosnian (Bosanian), Serbian, Croatian (see Serbo-Croatian language). Monetary unit - convertible mark (KM). It consists of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (area 26.08 thousand km 2, or about 51% of the country's territory; population 2931 thousand people, 2005) and the Republika Srpska (area 25.05 thousand km 2, population 1521.9 thousand people). In administrative-territorial terms, the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is divided into 10 cantons, consisting of 79 communities; as part of the Republika Srpska 62 communities; The community of Brcko was declared a special district (district) by the decision of international arbitration (1999) and is a condominium of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska.

Bosnia and Herzegovina is a member of the UN (1992), OSCE (1992), Council of Europe (2002), IMF (1992), IBRD (1993), WTO (observer).

Yu. E. Bychkov, A. A. Shinkarev.

Political system

Bosnia and Herzegovina is a federal state that includes the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska. The Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina was adopted on 12/14/1995. The form of government is a parliamentary republic.

The functions of the head of state are performed by a collegial body - the Presidium of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which consists of 3 members: one Bosnian and one Croat (elected directly from the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina) and one Serb (elected directly from the Republika Srpska). Their term of office is 4 years (with the right to one re-election). The members of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina elect a chairman from among their members. The Presidium conducts the foreign policy of the state; appoints ambassadors and other representatives of the state abroad; represents in international organizations; negotiating and the like. Each member of the Presidium, by virtue of his position, has the authority to civilian leadership of the armed forces of the country.

Legislative power is exercised by a bicameral Parliamentary Assembly. The House of Peoples consists of 15 deputies, of which 10 are elected by the national parliaments from the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (5 deputies from Croats and 5 from Bosniaks) and 5 from the Republika Srpska (from Serbs). The House of Representatives consists of 42 deputies, 2/3 are elected by the population from the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and 1/3 from the Republika Srpska. Executive power belongs to the Council of Ministers. The President of the Council of Ministers is appointed by the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina after being approved by the House of Representatives.

Bosnia and Herzegovina has a multi-party system; the main political parties are Party of Democratic Action, Party for Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbian Democratic Party, Social Democratic Party of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatian Democratic Union/Christian Democratic Party.

V. P. Shram.

Nature

Relief. Most of the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina is located within the Dinaric highlands. From the northwest to the southeast, mostly flat-topped, strongly dissected, often with steep slopes, mountain ranges and extensive intermountain basins stretch parallel to each other. Hills and low mountains prevail in the northern and southern parts, in the central part - mid-mountain and high-mountain massifs, reaching 2386 m in the southeast (the highest point of Bosnia and Herzegovina is Mount Maglic). Karst relief forms are widespread - bare limestone rocks, karrs, caves, underground rivers. In the intermountain basins, vast fields were formed, including the Livansko-Polye (405 km 2). In the southwest - a short (about 20 km) stretch of the mountainous coast of the Adriatic Sea. In the north, along the valley of the Sava River, there is a plain with flat watersheds and wide river valleys (the southern part of the Middle Danube Lowland).

Geological structure and minerals. The territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina is located within the Dinaric folded system (the so-called Dinarids) of the Cenozoic Alpine-Himalayan mobile belt, which is characterized by a cover-zonal structure. The outer zones are composed of Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Paleogene sedimentary strata folded into folds and disturbed by thrusts and covers and represent fragments of the cover of the Adria continental block (located to the west) torn off at different stages of Alpine tectogenesis. The inner zones are formed by covers of Jurassic ophiolites, Cretaceous limestones and Cretaceous-Paleogene flysch - fragments of the crust of the Neotethys oceanic basin (see Tethys article). There are intrusions of Cenozoic granitoids. Small depressions are filled with Neogene coal-bearing deposits. The territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina is highly seismic. As a result of a catastrophic earthquake in 1969, the city of Banja Luka was destroyed.

The most important minerals of Bosnia and Herzegovina: bauxite (deposits are mainly of the karst type, grouped into bockite-bearing areas - Bosanska Krupa, Yajce, Vlasenica, Mostar, etc.), iron ores (ore areas of Lubia, Varesh, Omarska), brown coal (Banovichi and Central Bosnian basins), lignites (Kamnegrad basin), asbestos (Bosansko-Petrovo-Selo deposit). There are known deposits of mercury (Drazhevich) and manganese (Buzhim, Chevlyanovichi) ores, barite (Kreshevo), rock salt, and natural building materials (clay, etc.).

Climate. Most of the country has a temperate continental climate. Summers are warm (average July temperature is 19-21°C in the plains, 12-18°C in the mountains). Winter is moderately cool (average January temperature is from 0 to -2°С in the plains, from -4 to -7°С in the mountains). 800-1000 mm of precipitation falls evenly per year on the plains and 1500-1800 mm in the mountains. In the southwest and south of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the climate is subtropical Mediterranean, with hot, dry summers (average July temperature 25°C) and warm, wet winters (average January temperature 5°C). Up to 1600 mm of precipitation falls annually with a maximum in November - December.

Inland waters. Bosnia and Herzegovina has a dense and branched river network with a total length of over 2,000 km. About 3/4 of the territory belongs to the Danube river basin. The main rivers are the Sava with the tributaries Una, Sana, Vrbas, Bosna, Drina flowing mainly from south to north. The largest of the rivers of the Adriatic Sea basin (1/4 of the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina) is the Neretva River. The largest lakes Bushko and Bilechko are of karst origin. Annually renewable water resources are 38 km 3 , water supply is about 9 thousand m 3 per person per year (2000). Mountain rivers have significant hydropower potential; about 30 reservoirs have been created. For economic purposes, no more than 3% of water resources are used (of which 60% goes to agriculture, 30% - to household needs, 10% is consumed by industrial enterprises).

Soils, vegetation and animal world . In the valleys of the Sava River and its tributaries, fertile alluvial soils are common, in the mountains - brown soils. The area of ​​forests is 2273 thousand hectares (44% of the territory), including 57 thousand hectares are artificial forest plantations. The indigenous broad-leaved forests of the northern Bosnian plains have been replaced by agricultural land. In the foothills and on the northern slopes of the mountains, up to a height of 500 m, oak-hornbeam forests grow with an admixture of maple, linden, and elm. In the central regions, beech forests are widespread, at an altitude of 800-900 m they are replaced by beech-fir forests with an admixture of pine and spruce. In the southeast, in the belt of mixed and coniferous forests, endemic Serbian spruce is occasionally found. Above 1600-1700 m - crooked mountain pine forests and subalpine meadows. On the southwestern slopes on brown soils, maquis with holm oak, red juniper and other predominantly evergreen species of shrubs is common, on stony slopes - frigana. Above 300-400 m, patches of primary forests of downy and holm oaks, hornbeam, French maple are combined with thickets of shibleak on rendzina.

Chamois, red deer, roe deer, brown bear, wolf, wild boar, European lynx, forest cat, otter, marten live in the mountains. Lizards, snakes, turtles are numerous in karst areas. From large birds there are eagles, falcons, capercaillie. In the swampy lower reaches of the Neretva River, there are great and little egrets, bitterns, various waterfowl; of predators - golden eagle, greater spotted eagle, white-tailed eagle.

In Bosnia and Herzegovina - 5 protected natural areas with a total area of ​​25.05 thousand hectares, including the Sutjeska and Kozara national parks.

Lit .: Romanova E.P. Modern landscapes of Europe. M., 1997; Shuman M. Bosnia and Herzegovina. N.Y., 2004.

M. A. Arshinova; V. E. Khain (geological structure and minerals).

Population

Bosniaks, according to various estimates, make up from 38 to 52.5% of the population, Serbs - from 21.5 to 30%, Croats - from 12 to 17%, Roma - over 10% (2005). Of the other ethnic groups in Bosnia and Herzegovina live Montenegrins, Macedonians, Albanians, Czechs, Slovaks, Rusyns, Jews, etc.

According to the population census (1991), 4.37 million people lived in Bosnia and Herzegovina. During the armed conflict of 1992-95, about 200-250 thousand people died, more than 30 thousand people went missing, about 2 million people became refugees and displaced persons. Since the late 1990s, the country's population has been increasing due to the return of part of the refugees, as well as due to the relatively high birth rate (12.5 births per 1,000 inhabitants in 2005) and low mortality (8.4 per 1,000 inhabitants); infant mortality (21.1 per 1000 live births) is one of the highest in Europe. The fertility rate is 1.7 children per woman. Natural population growth 0.44% (2005). The balance of external migration is positive - 0.3 migrants per 1000 inhabitants. The proportion of children under 15 years of age - 18.3% (2005), the elderly (65 years and older) 10.9%, persons of working age (15-64 years) 70.7%. On average, there are 101 men for every 100 women. Average life expectancy is 72.9 years (men - 70.1, women - 75.8 years). Demographic behavior varies significantly among different ethnic groups of the population. The highest birth rate and natural increase- among Bosniaks, among Serbs and Croats, the number of women prevails in all age categories, except for children (under 15).

The average population density is 87.1 people / km 2 (2005), in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina - 112.4 people / km 2, in the Republika Srpska - 60.7 people / km 2. River valleys are most densely populated; in sparsely populated mountainous regions, residents of older age groups predominate. The process of concentration of the population in developed urban centers and other urbanized settlements continues. The proportion of the urban population is 43% (2003). Large cities (2005; thousand people): Sarajevo (697), Banja Luka (221), Zenica (164), Tuzla (142), Mostar (105). In total, over 1 million people are employed in the economy (2001). Unemployment rate 44% of the economically active population of the country (official data); the level of real unemployment is about 20% (taking into account hidden employment; estimate).

Yu. E. Bychkov, A. A. Shinkarev.

Religion

On the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina there are 5 dioceses of the Serbian Orthodox Church: Dabro-Bosanska, Banja Luka, Bihachsko-Petrovatskaya, Zakhumsko-Herzegovina and Zvornicsko-Tuzlanskaya. According to official statistics (2004), 31% of the population are Orthodox Christians. According to various sources, from 40 to 44% of the population are Sunni Muslims, 15.5% are Catholics, and about 4% are Protestants. On the territory of the country, in Medjugorje, there is an international center of pilgrimages associated with the apparitions of the Virgin. As a result of military clashes in 1992-95, numerous Orthodox, Catholic and Muslim religious sites were destroyed and damaged. To resolve religious issues, there is an Interreligious Veche, consisting of representatives of 4 confessions: Orthodoxy, Catholicism, Islam and Judaism.

Historical outline

Bosnia and Herzegovina until the middle of the 15th century

The territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina has been inhabited since the Paleolithic era (a site near the mouth of the Usora River). Since the Neolithic, the inclination of the cultures of Bosnia to the inner regions of the Balkans (Butmir culture, Vita), Herzegovina - to the Mediterranean (the Starchevo culture) can be traced. In the Late Neolithic - Early Bronze Age, drastic changes take place on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Vucedol, Kostolac, and Baden cultures spread. Monuments of the turn of the Bronze and Iron Ages belong to East Hallstatt (the Bosnian version of this culture is associated with the Illyrians). In the 4th century BC, the Celts penetrate the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, forced out or assimilated in the 2nd century BC, when these lands fall into the orbit of politics ancient rome. At the beginning of the 1st century AD, the lands of Bosnia and Herzegovina became part of the Roman state (the provinces of Dalmatia, Upper and Lower Pannonia). Roman cities, villas appear, mining of iron, silver, and gold develops; despite Romanization, the traditions of the Illyrians are preserved in the countryside. At the end of the 4th - beginning of the 5th centuries, the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina was attacked by the Visigoths, after being part of the kingdom of the Ostrogoths (end of the 5th century - about 535), it came under the rule of Byzantium. In the 6th-7th centuries, the Slavs appeared here. From the middle of the 10th century, tribal principalities are mentioned in the sources: Trebinje, Zahumle, Travuniya, Pogania (Neretva) and Bosnia. The territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina was the object of rivalry between Serbia, Croatia, Hungary, Byzantium and was alternately part of them. In the 12-14 centuries, Bosnia was a principality headed by a ban [the most famous: Kulin (ruled in 1180-1204 or 1203), Stepan Kotromanich (ruled in 1322-53)].

From the end of the 12th century, Bogomilism spread on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, on the basis of which an independent Bosnian church arose. Ban Tvrtko I annexed part of the Serbian lands and the Adriatic coast with the cities of Kotor, Split, Sibenik, Trogir and in 1377 took the title of King of "Serbs, Bosnia, Pomerania and Western countries"; his troops participated in the battle of the united Serbian forces against the Turks in the Kosovo Field (1389). After the death of Tvrtko I (1391), a long period of feudal civil strife began. During this struggle, one of the rulers of the southern part of the Kingdom of Bosnia, Stepan Vukchich, proclaimed himself the Duke of "Saint Sava" (1448); his possessions later became known as Herzegovina.

Bosnia and Herzegovina under Ottoman rule. In 1463, Bosnia, and in 1482 Herzegovina were conquered by the Turks and in 1583 united into the Bosnian Pashalik. The Turkish military system became widespread in it. Most of the nobility and part of the population converted to Islam. Part of the Christian population, oppressed by both the Turkish authorities and the local Muslim nobility, migrated. The centers of Orthodoxy were monasteries; among the Catholic population, the Franciscans enjoyed the greatest authority (the activity of Catholic missionaries, especially in the western lands, unfolded at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries). From the beginning of the 19th century, the struggle of the people of Bosnia and Herzegovina against national and social oppression intensified (peasant uprisings in 1804-13, 1834, 1852-53, 1857-58, 1861-62, etc.), the culminating point of which was the Herzegovinian-Bosnian uprising 1875-78 years. By decision of the Berlin Congress of 1878, Austria-Hungary received the right to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina and introduce its own administration there. The Austro-Hungarian authorities carried out a striped resettlement of the Orthodox, Catholics and Muslims of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Serbs, who made up the largest national community, were opposed to the Croats, the Croats - to the Serbs, the Christians - to the Muslims.

Bosnia and Herzegovina from the beginning of the 20th century. In 1908, the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina was annexed by Austria-Hungary. This caused protests not only in Bosnia and Herzegovina itself, but also in neighboring countries, especially in Serbia; the Bosnian Crisis of 1908-09 emerged. G. Princip, a member of the Young Bosnia organization, shot the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914, which triggered World War I. In 1918, after the collapse of Austria-Hungary, Bosnia and Herzegovina became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (since 1929 Yugoslavia). During World War II, it was included in the puppet Independent State of Croatia. On the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the main battles of the liberation war in Yugoslavia unfolded. After the liberation of Yugoslavia (1945), Bosnia and Herzegovina became part of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia as a people's republic; since 1963, a socialist republic within the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Since the 1960s, there has been an increase in the Muslim population. According to censuses, in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1961 lived 42.89% Orthodox (mostly Serbs), 25.69% Muslims (Boshnak), 21.71% Catholics (mostly Croats), in 1971 respectively 37.19%, 39 .57% and 20.62%, in 1981 - 32.02%, 39.52% and 18.38%, in 1991 - 31.2%, 43.5% and 17.4% (5.6 % self-identified as "Yugoslavs"). The separation of Bosnia and Herzegovina from Yugoslavia (the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina was proclaimed in March 1992, which was recognized by the world community in April 1992) was accompanied by an interethnic war (1992-95), ending with the signing of the Dayton Accords (1995). Bosnia and Herzegovina made up two equal entities - the Republika Srpska (49% of the territory) and the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bosnian-Croatian; 51% of the territory). A multinational military force under NATO command was introduced into the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, later replaced by the peacekeeping forces of the European Community. All full political power has been transferred to the UN High Representative, who is endowed with sanctioning powers and has the right to change the leaders elected there. Although significant international assistance since 1995 has facilitated the reconstruction process, the consequences of the inter-ethnic conflict continue to have a negative impact on the development of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Lit.: Hilferding A. [F.] Bosnia, Herzegovina and Old Serbia. SPb., 1859; Klaic V. Poviest Bosne do propasti kralevstva. Zagreb, 1882; Lavrov P. The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the attitude of the Slavs towards it. St. Petersburg, 1909; ?opovu? V. Bosna and Herzegovina. Beograd, 1925; Slipiсeviс F. Bosna i Hercegovina od Berlinskog kongresa do kraja Prvog svetskog rata (1878-1918). Zagreb, 1954; History of Yugoslavia: In 2 vols. M., 1963; ?irkovi? S. History of the Middle Ages Bosanske Drzhava. Beograd, 1964; Kapidzic H. Bosna i Herctgovina pod austrougarskom upravom. Sarajevo, 1968; Pisarev Yu. A. Formation of the Yugoslav state. First World War. The liberation struggle of the Yugoslav peoples of Austria-Hungary. The collapse of the Habsburg monarchy. M., 1975; Sabanovic H. Bosanski pasaluk. Sarajevo, 1982; Kraljacic T. Kalajev rezim u Bosni i Hercegovini (1882-1903). Sarajevo, 1987; Liberation struggle of the peoples of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Russia: 1850-1875. The documents. M., 1985-1988. [T. 1-2]; Bosnia, Herzegovina and Russia in 1850-1875: peoples and diplomacy. M., 1990; Bosna i Hercegovina od najstarijih vremena do kraja Drugog svetskog rata. Sarajevo, 1998; Nikiforov K. V. Between the Kremlin and the Republika Srpska (Bosnian crisis: the final stage). M., 1999; Guskova E. Yu. History of the Yugoslav crisis (1990-2000). M., 2001.

K. V. Nikiforov.

economy

Bosnia and Herzegovina is one of the underdeveloped countries in Europe. The volume of GDP is 26.2 billion dollars (purchasing power parity, 2004); according to national statistics - 17.9 billion KM, or about 11 billion dollars. 62.8% of GDP is created in the service sector, 25.3% in industry, 11.9% in agriculture. Human Development Index - 0.786 (2003; 68th place among 177 countries of the world).

Bosnia and Herzegovina (along with Macedonia) was one of the least economically developed republics of the former Yugoslavia. In the 1950-80s, a complex of heavy industry enterprises was created in the republic, mainly focused on the use of local resources. Thermal and hydroelectric power stations were built, the extraction of coal, ferrous and non-ferrous metal ores, and rock salt was developed; the production of coke, steel and rolled products, aluminium, chemical products, cellulose, paper, etc. grew; a number of defense industry enterprises operated. As a result of the armed inter-ethnic conflict of 1992-95, the economy and infrastructure of Bosnia and Herzegovina were destroyed.

In 2004, the volume of GDP was about 70% of the level of the early 1990s; real GDP growth - 5%. The economic policy of the country is aimed at solving two main tasks: the restoration of the economy and its reform on a market basis. The most important economic and social problems are a large foreign trade deficit and high unemployment. The process of privatization has been launched (about 60% of GDP is produced in the public sector of the economy, 2005). The volume of direct foreign investments is increasing. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, enterprises of large TNCs have been created - Coca-Cola (Coca-Cola), Volkswagen (Volkswagen), Daimler-Chrysler (Daimler-Chrysler), etc. Several free economic zones (Vogoshcha, Banja Luka, Mostar, etc.). Economic and social problems are partly solved by foreign financial assistance ($650 million in 2001). The Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina pursues a policy of firm support for the national currency (in fact, it is carried out by non-economic methods); there is practically no inflation in the country (0.4% in 2004).

Industry. Due to the incompleteness of the post-war reconstruction of the economy, the domestic market of Bosnia and Herzegovina is limited; many industrial enterprises do not operate at full capacity, focusing production on export deliveries. Growth in industrial production 5.5% (2003).

In the structure of the fuel and energy balance of Bosnia and Herzegovina, oil and oil products account for 18%, natural gas - 20%, coal and lignite - 37%, hydropower - 25% (2003). Oil and natural gas are imported, mainly from Russia. Extraction of brown coal and lignite (about 540 thousand tons in 2004) in the mines located in the intermountain basins of the central and north-eastern part of the country, from Breza to Tuzla. Bosnia and Herzegovina has a significant energy potential, which allows not only to fully satisfy its own needs for electricity, but also to supply it for export. Electricity generation 11,678 million kWh (2004); export 3288 million kWh (2002), import 2271 million kWh. About 1/3 of electricity production is accounted for by hydroelectric power stations, the largest - on the rivers Neretva (near Yablanitsa and Chaplina), Vrbas (Yajce), Trebišnica (Trebine). A program for the construction of small hydroelectric power plants on mountain rivers is being implemented (4 such hydroelectric power plants were built, 2005). TPPs operate mainly on local coal and lignites; the largest thermal power plants are in Gacko, Tuzla, and Uglevik. The main center of oil refining is a plant in the city of Bosanski Brod (with a capacity of up to 5 million tons of crude oil processing per year).

The main enterprises of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy (a steel plant in Zenica, an aluminum plant in Mostar, an alumina plant in Zvornik) were restored with the participation of foreign capital, most of their products are exported (about 1/4 of the country's annual export earnings). Extraction of iron ores (about 127 thousand tons; mines near Lubia and Varesh), manganese (near the city of Bosanska Krupa), lead and zinc (near Srebrenica), as well as bauxite (near the cities of Vlasenica, Srebrenica, Yajce, Bosanska Krupa and etc.). Steel production 197 thousand tons (2003), aluminum (from imported raw materials) 171 thousand tons, alumina (fully exported) 640 thousand tons (2004), lead and zinc concentrates - 11.7 thousand tons. transport engineering, specializing in the manufacture of automobile engines, assemblies, assemblies and parts (about 50 enterprises). The main centers are Sarajevo, Mostar, Teshnya and others. Products are supplied to 25 countries in the amount of 200 million euros (2004). The car assembly plant in Vogoshce produces small batches of Volkswagen cars (about 3.5 thousand units per year).

On the basis of significant forest resources, enterprises of the forestry and woodworking industries operate (about 1.5 thousand in total). Available capacities allow processing over 2 million m 3 of wood annually. Furniture production (about 200 enterprises) stands out in the industry, the capabilities of which significantly exceed the needs of the domestic market. Lumber and furniture are one of the country's important exports (€240 million in 2003). The capacities of pulp and paper industry enterprises allow to produce over 250 thousand tons annually various kinds paper and cardboard. The most important center of light industry (textile, leather, footwear, clothing) is Sarajevo.

Agriculture. Natural conditions favorable for the development of agriculture and the available capacities for processing agricultural products make it possible to fully meet the country's needs for food products. Almost all agricultural production is in private hands, but most of the peasant farms (usually small ones) are inefficient. Every year, the country imports food worth more than $1 billion.

Agricultural land occupies over 2 million hectares (over 40% of the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina), including 695.4 thousand hectares occupied by arable land and vegetable gardens (2001), 151.3 thousand hectares - by gardens and vineyards; the rest is meadows and mountain pastures. The main tracts of arable land are located in the river valleys, mainly in the Sava river valley, in the northern part of the country, where the climate and soils are favorable for the cultivation of cereals and some industrial crops (sugar beet, soybeans, sunflower). Grain harvest 1.1 million tons (2004; including corn 750 thousand tons, wheat 250 thousand tons, oats 55 thousand tons, barley 41.8 thousand tons, rye 12 thousand tons). To the south, upstream of the tributaries of the Sava, there are especially many orchards on the hills and foothills. Collection (thousand tons): plums 73, apples 35, pears 12. In the south-west of Herzegovina, where the Mediterranean climate prevails, tobacco is grown, as well as apricots, tangerines, peaches, figs, cherries, olives, melons; significant areas are occupied by vineyards (grape harvest is about 20 thousand tons). The traditional center of winemaking is the Mostar region. Potatoes and vegetables are grown everywhere. Collection (thousand tons, 2004): 350 potatoes, 78 cabbage, 35 tomatoes, 30 green peppers, 30 onions (in dry weight), 10 carrots, 500 other vegetables. Serbian and in areas with a Croatian population also pigs). In the central part of the country, transhumance-pasture animal husbandry (including sheep breeding) prevails. The number of cattle is 190 thousand (2003), sheep and goats 98 thousand, pigs 35 thousand, poultry 1370 thousand. Production (thousand tons, 2004): whole cow's milk 460, meat and meat products in general 56.4.

Services sector. Wholesale and retail trade remains the most important branch of the service sector. The most rapidly developing information infrastructure, telecommunications and communications. In the course of economic transformations, a modern banking system was formed in the country (36 commercial banks, 2005). A number of firms are successfully operating, based on the research centers and design bureaus that existed in Bosnia and Herzegovina until the early 1990s. Their main area of ​​activity is the preparation and organization of work on the implementation of large construction projects (including abroad). The leading organization in this area is Energoinvest (Sarajevo) with an annual income of about 100 million euros.

Bosnia and Herzegovina has a variety of natural, climatic, cultural and historical resources for the development of tourism and recreation: resorts (with thermal water and mud springs) and winter recreation centers in the mountains near Sarajevo, karst caves of the Dinaric Highlands, beaches of the Adriatic Sea; numerous historical and architectural monuments (in Sarajevo, Travnik, Mostar and other cities). Before the armed conflict of 1992-1995, income from tourism (mainly foreign) accounted for about 2.5% of the republic's GDP. In 2005, the hotel base and tourist infrastructure of Bosnia and Herzegovina are under restoration. The profitability of the tourism business is low.

Transport. The main mode of transport is automobile. The length of roads is 22.6 thousand km (2004), including about 14 thousand km of paved roads. Mountainous road sections with low throughput prevail. The length of railways is 1031 km (3.2 million tons of cargo was transported along them in 2004). Navigation on the Sava River and its tributaries. River ports - Doboj (on the river Bosna), Bosanski-Shamats, Bosanski Brod (on the Sava) and others. Sea transportation is carried out through the port of Ploce (Croatia). The most important airports are in Sarajevo, Mostar, Banja Luka, Tuzla. The national airline is BH Airlines. The main volume of air transportation is accounted for by foreign companies.

International trade. The volume of foreign trade turnover is 6.9 billion dollars (2004), including exports of 1.7 billion dollars, imports of 5.2 billion dollars. The commodity structure of exports is dominated by raw materials and semi-finished products (ferrous metal casting, aluminum, lumber), furniture, electricity, as well as automotive components and assemblies, textile, clothing and leather products. The most important imports are: machinery and equipment (including automobiles, household electrical appliances and electronics), chemicals, fuels (oil and oil products, natural gas), foodstuffs. The main part of the foreign trade turnover falls on the EU countries. The main importers of goods from Bosnia and Herzegovina: Italy (22.9% of the value in 2004), Croatia (22.1%), Germany (20.3%), Austria (7.5%), Slovenia (6.9% ), Hungary (4.9%). Main suppliers of goods to Bosnia and Herzegovina: Croatia (26.4%), Germany (14.9%), Slovenia (13.4%), Italy (12.0%), Austria (6.9%), Hungary ( 6.4%).

Yu. E. Bychkov, A. A. Shinkarev.

Armed forces

The armed forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina (as of 2005) include the paramilitary formations of the Republika Srpska (about 12.2 thousand people; 8 launchers of tactical missiles, 137 tanks, 115 combat armored vehicles, about 500 artillery guns and mortars, anti-aircraft artillery and army aviation) and paramilitary formations of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (about 23.8 thousand people; 204 tanks, 147 armored combat vehicles, 905 artillery guns and mortars, MLRS and army aviation). On the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina there are EU peacekeeping forces (about 7 thousand people). Mobilization resources 953 thousand people, including 405 thousand people fit for military service.

healthcare

In Bosnia and Herzegovina, there are 143 doctors, 452 nurses (2002), and 19 dentists (1998) per 100,000 inhabitants. Primary health care is provided by polyclinics and medical centers, specialized - specialized polyclinics, hospitals, health and rehabilitation centers, institutes. There are 314 beds per 100 thousand inhabitants (2003). Health expenditure is 7.5% of GDP (2001). Medical personnel are trained by 5 medical institutes. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, a lot of work has been done to develop family medicine. Resorts - Banya Vruchica, Ilidzha.

A. N. Prokinova.

Sport

The National Olympic Committee was established in 1992, the IOC since 1993. The most developed playing sports are football, basketball, handball, rugby, chess. The national football team of Bosnia and Herzegovina is a participant in the qualifying tournaments of the European and World Championships. Since 1957, traditional chess tournaments have been held in Sarajevo with the participation of the world's strongest grandmasters, known since 1960 as "Bosna Tournaments". In 1984 Sarajevo hosted the Olympic Winter Games.

Education. Scientific and cultural institutions

The general management of educational institutions is carried out by the Federal Ministry of Education, Science, Culture and Sports. The education system includes: preschool institutions for children aged 3-7, basic compulsory two-stage schools (for 7-11 and 11-15 year old children), general secondary 4-year schools (gymnasiums) for 15-19 year old students, special secondary 4-year schools (pedagogical, artistic, musical, religious, technical), vocational 3-year schools, universities. The higher education system includes 4 universities: in Sarajevo (1949), Banja Luka (1975), Tuzla (1976), Mostar (1977), the Pedagogical Academies in Zenica and Bihac (both 1993), the Pedagogical College in Bielin (early 2000s).

In 1966, the Academy of Sciences and Arts was established on the basis of the Scientific Society of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1951, Sarajevo). Main scientific institutions: institutes - meteorology (1891), thermal and nuclear technology (1961), linguistics (1973), Bosnian Institute (1997; studies in the history and culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina) - all in Sarajevo; societies - mathematical, physical and astronomical, geographical, pedagogical, medical, etc.

Libraries: Gazi Khasrevbegov (1537), National and University (1945), National Museum (all in Sarajevo) and others. Over 20 museums and galleries, including museums: National (1888), historical, literature and theater art, Art Gallery (1946) - all in Sarajevo; regional museum in Banja Luka (1930).

Lit.: Democracy in education in Bosnia - Herzegovina and FR Yugoslavia. Stockh., 2002; Education in Bosnia. Oklahoma, 2002.

Media

Major daily newspapers (2005): Oslobodenje, Nezavisne novine, Dnevni avaz, Slobodna Bosna magazine . State TV and radio broadcasting includes 4 radio and 2 TV channels. National public broadcasting is carried out on the BGTV-1 channel (BGTV-1). FTV (FTV) is the public broadcaster of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. RTRS (RTRS) is a public television and radio company of the Republic of Srpska. Mreza Plus is a commercial channel. There are 2 state news agencies in the country: FENA (FENA), belongs to the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, SRNA (SRNA) belongs to the Republika Srpska.

G. V. Prutskov.

Literature

The literature of Bosnia and Herzegovina develops mainly in the Bosnian language (see Serbo-Croatian language), goes back to the traditions of Cyrillic writing. The oldest monuments (Divoshevo Four Gospels, the charter of King Stepan Dabisha, a collection of praises, etc.) date back to the 14th-15th centuries. In the 15th-17th centuries, chronographs were created in some Serbian monasteries in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Literary monuments include epitaph inscriptions from stone tombstones on the theme of life and death. Since the 16th century, there have been works by Bosnian Muslims in Turkish, Persian, Arabic, and also in Bosnian (using the Arabic alphabet). Religious and instructive verses (Ilahi and Hasidim) by Haji Yusuf, Hasani Kaymi, Khevai Uskufi are known. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Croatian Franciscan monks wrote religious didactic and historical works using both the Cyrillic and Latin alphabets (M. Divkovic, I. Antic, A. Shipragic, S. Margitich). In the 19th century, the influence of Illyrianism (on the Franciscan writers - I. F. Yukic, G. Martic) and romanticism (on the Serbian writers - S. Milutinovic-Sarailia and others) manifested itself. Religious and didactic genres dominated the literature of the Bosnian Muslims until the end of the 19th century (M. Ch. Chatic). At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the outstanding Serbian poets A. Šantić and J. Ducic, and the satirist P. Kočić worked in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

In the 20th century, literature in Bosnia and Herzegovina developed predominantly in the tradition of realism. A socio-critical direction was born (N. Simic, H. Kikich). In the 1950s and 60s, the work of the Serbian realist B. Čopić became truly popular, the Serb I. Andric (Nobel Prize, 1961) and the Bosnian M. Selimovich, who adhered to the Serbian literary tradition, brought international recognition to the literature of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The work of Selimović and the Bosnian S. Kulenović (also associated with the Serbian tradition) forms the basis of the new Muslim literature of Bosnia and Herzegovina that has been formed since the 1970s. At the same time, the Bosniak poets M. Dizdar, an adherent of the Croatian literary school, and I. Sarajlich, who is close to Serbian literature, belong to several literary traditions; the prose writer C. Siyaric was perceived as a Muslim, and as a Montenegrin, and as a Serbian writer.

Lit.: Rizvic M. Bosanskohercegovacke knjizevne studije. Sarajevo, 1980; History of Literature of the Western and Southern Slavs. M., 1997-2001.T. 1-3.

S. N. Meshcheryakov.

Architecture and fine arts

On the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, ceramics with linear and spiral ornaments, figurines of women and animals of the Neolithic era, art monuments of the Illyrians and Celts, the remains of ancient Roman cities (Domavium, now Domavia, etc.), jewelry of the ancient Slavs were found. The medieval art of Bosnia and Herzegovina absorbed the influences of Byzantium, Serbia, Dalmatia, Central Europe, and, from the middle of the 15th century, Turkey. Castles and fortified dwelling towers (“kula”), basilicas (in Zenica, Brez, etc.) were erected; simple cross-domed churches were built (in Ozren), as well as single-nave (in Dobrun, until 1383), Romanesque (in Jajce) and Gothic (in Bihac) churches. The type of dwelling that is still found today was a house (made of clay, wood or stone) with a 4-pitched roof, a barn and living quarters on the 2nd floor. During the period of Turkish domination, a type of city house developed with an enclosed courtyard and a staircase leading to the upper floor. Small towns with dense buildings had a "sakhat-kulu" (clock tower). Mosques, madrasahs, baths, caravanserais, bridges were built. In the visual arts, stone tombstones (the so-called stechaks) with carved reliefs became widespread. Few surviving monuments of medieval monumental painting (frescoes of the church in Dobrun, late 14th century) are close to the murals of Serbia, but also testify to acquaintance with the culture of Italy. The art of miniature in the 12th-14th centuries experienced Serbian and Byzantine influences. Interesting Bogomil manuscripts with naive folklore miniatures ("Kopitarov Gospel", 14th century). The iconography of Bosnia and Herzegovina followed the Byzantine canons until the middle of the 19th century. In the Middle Ages, metal processing and artistic weaving (lint-free carpets-kilims with geometric and floral ornaments) reached high perfection.

During the Austrian occupation, buildings were built in the cities in the spirit of European eclecticism, in the "Moorish" (Town Hall in Sarajevo, 1890-96, architect K. Ivekovic; destroyed in 1992), neoclassical (theater in Sarajevo, architect K. Parzhik) and neo-Renaissance (National Museum, 1913, Parzhik; destroyed in 1992) styles. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, painters who studied abroad mastered the methods of modern painting. Most of the artists of Bosnia and Herzegovina worked in Serbia (painters J. Bielic, N. Gvozdenovich, sculptor S. Stojanovic). In the 1920s and 30s, a group of local painters was formed, in whose work an appeal to folk life and native nature was combined with the use of plein air and post-impressionism techniques (Sh. Botsarich, V. Dimitrievich, I. Sheremet).

In the architecture of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 1920s and 30s, there was a turn towards functionalism (the metallurgical plant in Zenica). After 1945, the construction of modern industrial enterprises (in Zenica, Jablanica), residential and public buildings, a sports complex, and a university building (in Sarajevo) began. Since the 1960s, the search for plastic expressiveness, close to brutalism, and the decorative use of local materials began (the Skenderia sports center and the Museum of the People's Revolution in Sarajevo, the Razvitak department store in Mostar). In the visual arts after 1945, monumental compositions were created on the themes of national history and the national liberation struggle (paintings by I. Muezinovich, V. Dimitrievich, a monument at the partisan cemetery in Mostar by B. Bogdanovich, etc.). In the second half of the 20th century, both realism (L. Lach, B. Shotra) and expressionism (Muezinovich, M. Werber), abstractionism (M. Korovin, E. Numankadic) and other avant-garde movements became widespread. In 1945, the School of Painting was opened in Sarajevo, in 1972 - the Academy of Arts.

Lit.: Grabrijan D., Neidhardt J. Arhitektura Bosne i put u suvremeno. Ljubljana, 1957; Guide to collections of the regional museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina / S. Silic. Sarajevo, 1984.

Music

Oral art has traditionally been the basis of musical culture. Medieval culture is of the minstrel type, the first mention of court musicians dates back to 1408. During the period of Turkish domination, oriental elements penetrated into the folk musical tradition - Slavic at its core; there was church music (Eastern and Western rites), Catholic musicians studied mainly in Italy. The most significant composer of this period is Franjo Bosanac (1st half of the 16th century, originally from Bosnia, lived in Venice). During the period of the Austro-Hungarian occupation, a musical culture of the European type began to develop, military bands and urban musical life played an important role in this process. In 1881, the first concerts in Bosnia and Herzegovina took place - in Banja Luka, then in Sarajevo. Foreign musicians began to arrive, in 1909 the violinist B. Huberman gave concerts, and opera troupes from Austria and Hungary performed. In 1886, the Men's Singing Union was organized in Sarajevo (existed approximately until 1918), which was led by J. Vancash for many years; in addition to German and Austrian music, works by Croatian, Slovenian, and Czech authors were performed. The first professional composer and conductor of Bosnia and Herzegovina was a Czech by origin F. Machejovski (he lived in Banja Luka since 1900, in Sarajevo in 1905-38). At the beginning of the 20th century, the Czech L. Kuba began to study the musical folklore of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Local musicians united (on a national or confessional basis) in numerous musical societies.

The entry of Bosnia and Herzegovina into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (1918) contributed to the rise of musical culture. A regular concert life began in Sarajevo, the following were created: the National Theater (1919), where there was its own orchestra and the first national plays with music were performed, and operas (originally Italian) were staged from the 1928/29 season), the Philharmonic Symphony Orchestra (1923) . The National Theater also opened in Banja Luka (1930). Arrangements of folk songs and plays with music on local themes prevailed in the composer's work. Among the composers: B. Kacherovski, B. Jungich, V. Milosevic, J. Pleciti, C. Richtman, A. Pordes. In 1941, musical organizations were closed.

In 1946, the Opera House was opened in Sarajevo, on the stage of which operas by composers of Yugoslavia were staged, in 1948 the Symphony Orchestra of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (since 1953 philharmonic) was organized, in 1962 - the Symphony Orchestra of Radio and Television, since 1955 the Academy of Music has been operating . The folklore direction still prevailed in the composer's work, however, pan-European trends also appeared - neoclassicism (D. Shkerl), avant-gardism (V. Komadina). The tradition of choral performance has been preserved.

Lit.: Bosansko-Hercegovacka muzika // Muzicka enciklopedija. Zagreb, 1971. Kn. one.

Theatre

The national theatrical art of Bosnia and Herzegovina began to take shape in the 19th century. The contribution to the development of theatrical culture was made both by local troupes (for example, A. Banovich and his students) and by foreign diplomats who organized private theater evenings. The first theatrical performance in Bosnia (Judith by F. Goebbel) in 1865 was shown by an amateur troupe led by S. Petranovich. In 1881-96 there was a "German theater" in Sarajevo. In 1898, a mobile theater was opened under the direction of M. Tsrnogorchevich, playing in the Serbian language (existed for 8 months). In 1898, the actor D. Ginich created the "First Serbian Theater of Bosnia and Herzegovina" in Sarajevo, which was soon closed by the authorities of Austria-Hungary. The "Serbian amateur theater in Sarajevo", established in 1912, was closed for political reasons a year later. In December 1919, the National Theater was founded in Sarajevo under the direction of S. Brakus; among the first performances - "The Imaginary Sick" by Moliere, staged by the country's first professional director A. A. Vereshchagin (in the 1921/22 season he also successfully staged "The Tricks of Scapin" by Moliere, "The Government Inspector" by N. V. Gogol, "The Living Corpse » L. N. Tolstoy). During the 2nd World War, the theater was renamed the Croatian National Theater (in 1945 the original name was returned), in 1941-45 it was directed by the playwright A. Muradbegovic. In 1930-1936, the actor and director R. Pregarts worked at the National Theater, staged 75 performances, including plays by W. Shakespeare, Moliere, P. Beaumarchais, F. Schiller, L. Pirandello, as well as M. Krlezha and other Yugoslav authors. Theaters appeared in Banja Luka (1930), Mostar (1949), Tuzla (1949), Zenica (1950). In 1950, the Maly Theater (now "Chamber Theater 55") was opened in Sarajevo, as well as the Pioneer and Puppet Theater, which merged in 1977 into a single team - the Children's Theater. In the 1990s, new theater groups were formed, including those led by S. Plakal, and others. A significant contribution to the development of the performing arts in Bosnia and Herzegovina was made by theatrical figures and actors I. Korenich, I. Leshich, M. Bilach, R. Demirdzic, 3. Sokolovic, 3. Zrncic, R. Alvaj, I. Fancovic and many others. Since 1960, the Festival of Small and Experimental Stages has been held, since 1984 - the International Festival "Sarajevo Winter".

Lit.: Lesie J. Istorija jugoslavenske moderne rezije. Novi Sad, 1986.

V. N. Gorelov.

Cinema

The first screening in Sarajevo took place in 1897 (demonstration of films by the brothers L. and O. Lumiere). The earliest surviving film footage of Bosnia and Sarajevo was filmed in 1912 under the title A Tour of Bosnia by London's Charles Urban Studios. The pioneer of the cinema of Bosnia and Herzegovina was A. Valich, who managed the cinemas "Apollo" and "Imperial" in Sarajevo. In 1913-14, he made 5 films, including one about the assassination of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and the demonstrations that followed. The first feature films were the short "On the Border" (directed by B. Kosanovich) and the full-length "Major Ghost" (directed by N. Popovich; both 1951). Well-known writers (B. Chopich, M. Selimovich, I. Samokovlia, M. Kovacs, A. Sidran) often acted as screenwriters. Most of the films were shot by the Bosna-film company (many were joint productions with other Yugoslav republics or foreign partners). The founding of the Sutjeska Film enterprise in the 1960s, which specialized in the production of documentaries and short films, led to the flourishing of these genres. The so-called Sarajevo School of Documentary Film gave the cinema of Bosnia and Herzegovina such directors as H. Krvavac, B. Tanovic, J. Ristic, M. Mutapcic, G. Šipovac, T. Janic, P. Majhrovski, B. Cengic, V. Filipovic . Along with them, I. Matic, N. Stojanovic and M. Idrizovic, who came from amateur cinema, as well as theater figures B. Drašković and I. Lešić, played a significant role in the formation of the original cinema of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which received world recognition. In 1981, the Academy of Performing Arts in Sarajevo was founded with the only department of acting at that time (in 1989 the department of directing was opened, in 1994 - dramaturgy). Among the most significant films, the shooting of which was wholly or partly carried out in Bosnia and Herzegovina: "Hanka" by S. Vorkapic (1955), "Shepherdess" (1962) and "The Battle of the Neretva" (1969) by V. Bulaic, "Young fighters ”(1967) and“ The role of my family in the world revolution ”(1971) B. Cengich,“ The smell of quince ”M. Idrizovic (1982),“ Woman and landscape ”I. Matich (1975, released on screens in 1989), “Here is a little soul” by A. Kenovich (1990), “Donkey Years” by N. Dizdarevich (1994). E. Kusturica also began working at the Bosna-film studio (“Do You Remember Dolly Bell?”, 1981; “Father on a Business Trip,” 1985; “Hanging House,” 1989), but with the outbreak of hostilities, he left Sarajevo and continued to work in Belgrade. The military conflict had a negative impact on the development of cinema. However, since 1995, the International Film Festival has been held in Sarajevo, and the post-war upswing made the cinematography of Bosnia and Herzegovina one of the most notable in Southeast Europe at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. The first post-war feature film was Perfect Circle by A. Kenovich (1996), and the film No Man's Land by D. Tanovic (2001, together with Italy, Slovenia, France, Great Britain, Belgium, Oscar, Prize of the International Film Festival in Cannes, etc.). Among the films of the early 2000s: "10 minutes" by A. Imamovich (2002, recognized as the best European short film of the year), "Summer in the Golden Valley" by S. Vuletic and "Remake" by D. Mustafich (both 2003), " Bickford Cord" (2003) and "Days and Hours" (2004) by P. Zhalitsy.

Lit.: Filmska enciklopedija. Zagreb, 1986-1990. Vol. 1-2.

Geographical position

Bosnia and Herzegovina is a continental state located in Southeastern Europe, in the west of the Balkan Peninsula. The country has a narrow outlet to the Adriatic Sea. This state consists of historical regions: Bosnia and Herzegovina. The total area of ​​the country is 51,129 sq. km.

The capital is the city of Sarajevo (population about 800 thousand people.). Major cities: Tuzla, Banja Luka, Mostar, Zenica, Bihac and Travnik.

Most of the country's territory is occupied by the limestone Dinaric Alps. The highest point is Mount Maglic, whose height is 2386 m. The mountains are dissected by deep river valleys.

To the north of them stretched a chain of lower Bosan ore mountains. The northern part of Bosnia is covered by the Sava Plain.
In the mountainous areas, “fields” are common, they are narrow intermountain valleys that are of karst origin.

Most rivers flow north. Some of them flow into the Adriatic Sea. The largest rivers of the country are: Sava in the north, Una in the west and Drina in the east. There are many waterfalls on the rivers. The Studeny waterfall is the highest in the Balkans, its height is 400 meters.

A warm Mediterranean climate prevails in the south of the country. In summer, the air temperature here rises to +30 °C. Summers are hot and dry, winters are quite warm. In the mountains (above 1700 m) the climate is alpine, on the northern plain it is temperate continental. In the north, precipitation is 600-800 mm per year, in the mountains - up to 2500 mm. Snow in the mountains can lie until early summer.

In summer, the air in the valleys warms up to +16 - +27 C. In winter, the air temperature ranges from 0 to -7 C.
Mountain relief has a huge impact on the climatic conditions of the country. The average annual temperature in the country is +12C. The average temperature in July reaches +21C, in January - +2C.

Visas, entry rules, customs rules

Citizens of the Russian Federation do not need a visa to visit the country.

Import and export of national and foreign currency is not limited, but a declaration is required. The same applies to the import and export of products made of gold and precious metals.
The import and export of drugs, psychotropic substances, poisons, weapons and ammunition is prohibited. You can import duty-free into the country 1 liter of alcohol, 200 pcs. cigarettes, 1 radio, 1 portable tape recorder, 1 video camera, etc. It is forbidden to take fuel out of the country. When traveling by car, the spare canister should contain no more than 10 liters of fuel. Without a special permit, objects and things of historical and artistic value cannot be exported from the country. To import animals, you need a certificate from a veterinarian and a vaccination certificate.

Population, political condition

Bosnia and Herzegovina is single state, which consists of two state entities: the Bosniak-Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska. The Federation includes 51% of the territory - west, center and south; as well as the capital - the city of Sarajevo. The Republic of Srpska includes 49% of the territory.

The population of the country is 3989 thousand people. In the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, there are 2,702 thousand inhabitants, in the Republika Srpska - 1,505 thousand people. The population consists of three main national-religious communities: Bosniaks - 48% (Muslims, mostly Sunnis); Serbs - 37% (Orthodox), Croats - 14% (Catholics). Albanians, Montenegrins, Gypsies, Jews also live in the country.

Bosnia is predominantly populated by Bosniaks (south and west of the region), the northern and southern regions are inhabited by the Croatian majority. Serbian Republic is dominated by Serbs. Herzegovina is inhabited by Croats in the west and Serbs in the east. This is one and the same ethnic group, the differences are only in religious affiliation.

Each entity has its own government, police, legislature, army. Both formations are subordinate to the central government - the collective presidium. The Presidium consists of three representatives of each of the main peoples of the state: Bosniaks, Serbs and Croats. The highest legislative body is the Assembly, which consists of two chambers.

The official languages ​​in the Federation are: Bosnian, Serbian, Croatian. Serbian is the official language in Republika Srpska. In fact, these languages ​​represent the same Serbo-Croatian language. The Federation uses the Latin alphabet, while the Republika Srpska uses the Cyrillic alphabet. English can only be used in large cities, in the provinces no one understands it.

The territory of the country is divided into 10 cantons. Brcko district has a special status. It is located in Republika Srpska and is inhabited by Bosniaks. This district is subordinate to the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and is controlled by international forces for the safety of residents. The Republika Srpska consists of two isolated parts, which are separated by the Brcko region: northern (the main city is Banja Luka) and eastern (the main city is Pale).

Bosnia and Herzegovina is a republic headed by a president.

The state is headed in turn by one of the three presidents, who represent one of the three ethnic groups. Presidents replace each other every 8 months. In their respective regions, they are elected by universal secret ballot for a four-year term.

The head of government is the chairman of the Council of Ministers. He is nominated for this post from among the cabinet members and approved by the National House of Representatives.

Legislative power is exercised by the bicameral Assembly, in which all three ethnic groups are equally represented.

What to watch

On the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, many architectural monuments of the Byzantine and Ottoman periods have been preserved. But many of them were damaged or destroyed during the hostilities. The tourist infrastructure was completely destroyed then.

Sarajevo is the capital of the country. This city was founded in 1263 and was then called Bosnovar. It is surrounded by mountains, located at an altitude of 450 m above sea level.

Before the war, Sarajevo almost completely retained its oriental appearance. The city had many mosques, markets, narrow streets, bazaars. On the embankment, at a small bridge on Franz Josef Street, on June 28, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated. After that, the First World War began.
In 1992, a civil war began here. The city withstood a three-year siege, but was able to recover almost completely. Although traces of the war are still visible in it. Gradually, the tourist infrastructure is being restored here.

The eastern part of the city is Christian. It is located on a plain and is almost completely built up with houses of various architectures. Muslim quarters are located on the slopes of the mountains and are separated by the Milyachka River. Here the houses are scattered in small groups, between them there are gardens.

The city has preserved two Orthodox churches - Saints Michael and Gabriel and the Cathedral Church of the Holy Mother of God. Here you can see four catholic churches. The Cathedral, built in the 18th century, is the spiritual center of the Bosnian Catholics.

There are 3 synagogues in Sarajevo. The Old Synagogue now houses the Jewish Museum with the famous Haggadah Code. The City Hall ("Vechnitsa") also deserves attention. It was built in 1896 and is made in the Moorish style.

But most of all in the city of Muslim buildings, many of which are considered to be masterpieces of Ottoman architecture. The most famous of them are: the mosque "Tsareva-Jamia" (XVI century), Ali-Pasha-Jamia, "Begova-Jamia" (XV century), which is the largest in the country. Kursumli Madrasah was built in 1537. It is famous for its library, which has about 50 thousand manuscripts and books.

Also noteworthy are: the Barcharshiya tower (XV century), the old caravanserai (XV century) on Morika-Khan, a Turkish fortress with 12 towers on a rocky ledge.

A single-span "Goat Bridge" is thrown across the Milyachka River; it is considered one of the most ancient monuments of the city. The "Latin Bridge" on the same river is famous for the fact that Archduke Franz Ferdinand was killed here. Next to it is a museum of Princip, who became the killer.

Among other museums, it is worth highlighting the Bosnian Regional Museum and the Zemalski Museum of Local Lore. You can also see the Olympic facilities here.

It is also worth visiting the "charshiya" market and the "Bar-charshiya" shopping area. They are a whole area in the old part of the city. There are many shops and shops, cafes, pastry shops, etc.

Here you can also visit Pigeon Square, where you can see hundreds of pigeons. Not far from here is the Gazi-Khosrov-Beg trading square with many shops and the Brus trading square, which was once one of the major stations of the Great Silk Road.

Balneo-climatic resort Ilidzhe (Kesheli) is located 13 km west of Sarajevo, at an altitude of 500-570 m above sea level. It lies in the Sarajevo field basin, surrounded by the Igman ridges (up to 1502 m high) and Trebovich. Mountains protect this place from cold winds. The thermal spa is widely known in Europe. The temperature of the thermal waters here ranges from +32 to +57.6 C. There is also sulfide silt mud here, and the local climate is great for treatment.

The medieval town of Jajce is interesting for its colorful old houses, cobbled streets and fortress walls. It lies on the banks of the Pliva and Vrbas rivers. Until the 15th century, this city was the capital of the Christian rulers of Bosnia. During the Nazi occupation, the city was the temporary capital of the country. Here the capital of independent Yugoslavia was proclaimed and the Constitution was created.

During the war, the city managed to somehow preserve its ancient appearance, so it attracts many tourists. The main sights of this city can be called: the famous complex of buildings of the Esma-Sultan mosque, the Church of St. Luke, old houses. On the Pliva River, you can also see a cascade of small but very colorful waterfalls and a complex of ancient watermills.

Mostar is considered the unofficial capital of southern Herzegovina. It is the second largest city in the country.

Mostar is located on the rocky banks of the Neretva River. It was founded around the 15th century. This city has a military history. Unfortunately, many of its historical buildings and structures were destroyed during the recent war.
Among them are the famous "Stari Most" over the waters of the Neretva and several mosques of the 16th and 17th centuries. The Tabakic Mosque has now been restored.

The ancient district of Kuyundzhiluk has been preserved in good condition, in which there are a lot of monuments of Islamic architecture, medieval buildings, colorful cobbled streets.

The main attraction of the city is the Old Bridge. It was built by the architect Mimar Khairuddin in 1566. This bridge towered 20 meters above the water. It is one of the main architectural monuments of the country and is included in the UNESCO Cultural Heritage List. In November 1993, the bridge was destroyed by Croatian artillery fire; it was restored only in July 2004.

Also preserved (or restored) were the Halebija and Tara towers that supported Stari Most, the University of Mostar, the Kriva Kupriya (“Crooked Bridge”) bridge, mosques and a monument in honor of the fallen during the years of the struggle against fascism. A unique historical monument are the fortresses in the village of Pochitel, which is located a few kilometers southwest of Mostar. St. Stephen's Fortress is located just downstream of the Neretva.

In the town of Blagaj, 10 km south of Mostar, there is a massive fortress of the same name.

Medugorje is a small village. It lies 17 km southwest of Mostar, almost on top of a mountain between Chitluk and Lubuski. This place gained worldwide fame on June 24, 1981. Then the Virgin Mary appeared to six local teenagers on a rocky hill Podbrdo, 5 kilometers from the village.

After that, the village began to develop actively. It has become a very important center of pilgrimage. An extensive tourist infrastructure has been created here. The civil war reduced the number of pilgrims to a minimum. But now many believers are coming here again.

The city of Banja Luka lies on the banks of the Vrbas River, in the northwestern part of the country. Previously, it did not stand out in any way, and at present it is the capital of the Serbian Republic. The city was first mentioned in chronicles at the end of the 15th century. It was a large industrial city, where there were practically no tourists. In 1993, Serbian militias blew up all 16 mosques in the city. Of the attractions now in the city, only the fortress on the banks of the Vrbas, built in the 16th century, the Presidential Palace, and the reconstructed Cathedral of Christ the Savior can be named.

In addition, the famous warm sulfur springs are located near the city, which have become one of the most popular balneological resorts in Europe.

Trebin is the most southeastern city in the country. On its outskirts, there is the Hercegovacka-Gracanica church, which is the national shrine of the Serbs. It is worth visiting the Kravice waterfall, located on the Trebijat River in Herzegovina.

Zhitomislich Monastery is located in the valley of the Neretva River. In the town of Travnik, lying between Jajce and Sarajevo, is the old residence of the Turkish governor.

In the II-I millennium BC. e. Illyrian tribes appeared on the territory of the country. In the 1st century BC e. the Romans came here, making these lands part of the province of Illyricum. In the 6th-7th centuries. n. e. Slavic tribes of Serbs and Croats settled here. Over time, they Slavicized the Romans as well. In 538, these lands were included in the Byzantine Empire. Missionaries Cyril and Methodius in the 9th century began to convert the local population to Christianity.

In 949, a small principality of Bosnia appeared, from 958 it became subject to the Croatian kings, and in 1000-1180. - passed into the possession of the Hungarian kings.

In 1180, the Bosnian Slavs created their own state, which was independent from Hungary. In 1326, Hum and Zahumle were included in its composition. These lands were the Adriatic coast, inhabited by Croats. By 1391, most of the population of Bosnia had been converted to the Catholic faith. And in Khum and Zahumla they professed Orthodoxy.
In 1449, the last ruler of Vukchich received the title of "herceg" (duke). After that, the southern part of Bosnia (Hum and Zahumle) was renamed Herzegovina. The eastern part of the territory of Bosnia was gradually conquered by the Turks, and the northern part by the Hungarians. In 1463-1528. most of the fragmented Bosnia became part of the Ottoman Empire. The population was gradually converted to Islam and the locals began to be called Bosniaks.

The Turks were tolerant of Orthodoxy. Many Catholics were forced to convert to Orthodoxy or flee the country. In 1875 there was a national liberation uprising. It ended in 1878. The Turks left the country, but the territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina were occupied by Austrian troops. The Bosnian Serbs wanted to join Serbia. To prevent this, Austria-Hungary formally annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908.

In August 1914, the heir to the Austrian throne was assassinated in Sarajevo. He was killed by Serbian terrorist Gavrilo Princip. This caused a political crisis that led to the outbreak of the First World War. In November 1918, Austria-Hungary collapsed. The territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina became part of the new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. Since 1929 it has been renamed Yugoslavia.

In the period 1941-1944. most of the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina was part of Croatia, and the southern part was part of Italy. The Croatian Ustashe massacred a large number of Muslims and Serbs.
In 1945, the Yugoslav People's Federation was created. Later it became known as the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

Her integral part became the newly formed Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 1991, the Bosnian Republika Srpska was established in Serb-dominated areas. It was formally part of the Socialist Republic of Yugoslavia. In March 1992, the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina was proclaimed. The troops of the Bosnian Republika Srpska, supported by the Yugoslav army, started the war. Croats also joined them. Serbs and Croats wanted to exterminate the Muslim population (Bosniaks).

Serbian and Croatian nationalists massacred and deported the Bosniaks. Bosniaks declared jihad on Serbs and Croats. The country broke up into separate parts.

At the end of 1992, about 70% of the country's territory was occupied by Serbian troops. Many Bosniaks, Serbs and Croats fled the country. In 1994, a peace agreement was signed between Bosniaks and Croats. They united in the fight against the Serbs.
In 1995, 7 thousand inhabitants were killed in the city of Srebrenica. After that, Serbian military positions were bombed by NATO. The war ended in autumn 1995. Peace talks were held in Dayton (USA). Serbia and Croatia recognized Bosnia and Herzegovina as an independent state. Within it, the autonomy of the Serbian community was recognized.

The international community has controlled Bosnia and Herzegovina since 1996 to maintain peace in the country. There is a small NATO peacekeeping corps present there.

International trade

The main export products are: electricity, bauxite and aluminum, clothing, timber. Main exporters: Italy, Croatia, Austria, Germany and Slovenia.

The shops

The best clothing stores are located in the capital. There are also large shopping centers. Many bakery shops are open 24/7 or from early morning until late at night.

Throughout the country you can find a wide variety of souvenir shops and shops. An excellent gift will be gold jewelry, which is distinguished by its unusual beauty. You can bring from the country various products of local artisans. There are markets in every city.

You can bring local wines - "Zhilavka" and "Gargash" or grape vodka "Rakia". They also sell alcoholic drinks based on millet, orchid, to which the roots of wild orchids are added. They are drunk hot.

Products made from pure sheep's wool: handmade carpets with Bosnian patterns, blankets, etc.

Local sweets: baklava, Turkish delight, halva, baklava, baked nuts and plums, puff pastry stuffed with nuts or with different impregnations.

You can buy local olive oil.

Sarajevo sells unusual souvenirs made from shell casings and bullets.

Many religious souvenirs are sold in the country.

A variety of copper cutlery, as well as hand-carved wooden items. Souvenirs with the image of sights are also sold: T-shirts, caps. Magnets, plates, etc.

Demography

The population density is 90.3 people per km2.
The sex ratio is 0.968 men to 1 woman.

The urban population is 49.0% of the total population of the country. Urbanization rate - 1.1% per year. The rural population is 51.0% of the total population of the country.

The average age of the population is 40.7 years. The average age of the male population is 39.6 years, the female population is 41.9 years.

Life expectancy at birth for both sexes is 78.8 years. Life expectancy at birth is 75.3 years for men and 82.6 years for women.

Industry

Before the war, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy enterprises operated in the country. Such branches of industry as forestry and woodworking, textile, leather and footwear and food are quite well developed. Gradually, there is a restoration of enterprises in the mining, oil refining, and metallurgical industries.

In some industries, production continues to grow: components for cars, textiles, aviation and household appliances. The country produces cheap cars.

Flora and fauna

About 36% of the country's territory is occupied by forests. Beech and coniferous forests (pine, spruce) grow in the mountains and foothills. Subtropical vegetation (evergreen shrubs) predominates in the extreme south, while steppe and forest-steppe vegetation prevails on the plain.
Arable land accounts for about 20% of the territory, pastures - 22%. The country has national natural parks and reserves. Hutovo Blato is a place where you can watch migratory birds.
Sutjeiska is a wild forest of Perućica with pines reaching 54 m in height, Kozara (coniferous forests) and others.

Soils are mostly brown. The natural vegetation is represented by beech forests. The northern third of Bosnia is covered by the fertile Sava Plain.
The most common wild animals are: deer, chamois, bears and wolves.

Banks and money

Banknotes of Bosnia and Herzegovina / Currency converter

The national currency of the country is the Bosnian Mark. In circulation there are banknotes of 1000, 500, 200, 100, 50, 20, 10 and 5 marks, coins of 5, 2 and 1 marks. It is best to change money only in official institutions - banks, exchange offices, hotels. This is due to frequent cases of fraud. The country has a low standard of living, so there are a lot of scammers here.

Using credit cards and traveler's checks is difficult. You can withdraw money from them only in the offices of the capital's banks, as well as in some hotels, post offices, restaurants and shops. More and more ATMs appear in the country, but they mainly serve only Maestro and Visa cards.

Travel checks can only be cashed at bank offices, but the procedure for checking their authenticity is very lengthy.

The euro is virtually ubiquitous. You can pay in euros even in ordinary shops and gas stations. But American dollars are accepted only in large hotels.

Banks of the country are open from Monday to Friday from 8.00 to 19.00. All receipts received during the exchange of money must be kept. They will be required for the return exchange when leaving the country.

The country has a well-developed bus service. However, the streamlined passenger service operates only within the national enclaves.

Some transit bus lines run through the enclaves and there are on-demand stops.

There are several dozens of small bus companies in the country. But the frequency of the message is not always acceptable for the tourist. In addition, buses can be late, there are also cancellations of flights.

When driving a car, be sure to use only the most modern maps highways. After all, serious changes occurred after the last Balkan war of 1992-1996.

Behind last years some roads, which used to be highways, have completely fallen into disrepair. In addition, new roads of very good quality have appeared. But they are not marked on old maps. This should be taken especially seriously in mountainous areas.

The roads in the country are not very good by European standards. Even the best highways have only 2 lanes in each direction of traffic.

The country is now relatively safe for tourists in terms of the criminal situation. However, a big problem is inter-ethnic hostility and fragmentation. The three main communities live quite apart in enclaves. In ordinary life, they rarely intersect.

The locals are friendly and hospitable, but wary of foreigners. In the Muslim regions of the country, the norms of decency traditional for Islamic countries have been adopted. However, women have equal rights with men and freely wear Western-style clothing. Although they walk with their heads covered. Some Bosnians freely drink alcohol, which is officially forbidden in Islam.

When meeting, locals greet each other with a handshake. The ability to speak and carry on a conversation is highly valued. European clothing is accepted everywhere. There are a lot of smokers in the country.

The country has a very high unemployment rate, which leads to social tension in society.

Tourists should not visit remote areas of settlements, especially at night.

Cases of petty fraud are not uncommon. When discussing financial matters, you need to be very careful and not trust the locals.

Until recently, there was a danger of falling into the zone of terrorist attacks. Now the situation is better, but tourists should be careful.

You should not discuss politics with local residents, as well as show your political sympathies. You need to be very careful when buying souvenirs of a political nature.

Some border areas are controlled by the International Peacekeeping Forces. Checks of documents, searches, etc. often take place at their checkpoints and outposts.

Photography is prohibited in many places, this is indicated by a special sign. It is forbidden to film transport infrastructure and energy facilities, port facilities and military installations.

The official name is Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is located in the southeastern part of Europe, in the west of the Balkan Peninsula. The area is 51,129 km2. The population is approximately approx. 3.8 million people According to the last census (1991), 4.377 million people lived in the country. As a result of the military conflict in 1992-95, the population decreased significantly. The official languages ​​are Bosan, Serbian, Croatian. The capital is the city of Sarajevo (400 thousand people, 1991). Monetary unit - convertible mark (KM).

Member of the UN (since 1992), OSCE (since 1992), Council of Europe (since 2002), etc.

Sights of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Geography of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosnia and Herzegovina is located between 15° and 20° east longitude and 46° and 42° north latitude. It has a narrow (about 15 km) exit to the Adriatic Sea. The coastline is high, rocky, covered with islands.

It borders in the north, west and south with Croatia, in the east and southeast with Serbia and Montenegro.

The landscape is 90% mountainous. The mountains of the Dinaric system (highest point 2228 m) include two belts: the Bosnian ore mountains and the Dinaric highlands. The largest rivers are the Sava (940 km), Drina (460 km), Bosna (308 km), Neretva (218 km). Plains - in the valleys of the Sava (the southern outskirts of the Middle Danube Lowland) and the Neretva.

The mountains are dominated by mountain-forest brown soils, podzolized to varying degrees; in the upper belt of mountains - mountain-meadow soils. In intermountain depressions, chernozem-like soils are common in places. Chernozems in combination with alluvial meadow soils predominate in the Sava River valley.

OK. 40% of the territory is covered with deciduous and coniferous forests (beech, oak, pine, spruce). In the south - evergreen shrubs. Fauna: deer, chamois, wild goats, bears, wolves, foxes, wild boars, reptiles (lizards, snakes), the most common fish is trout.

Minerals: brown coal, iron and manganese ores, bauxites, salt; hydro resources.

In the north, the climate is temperate continental (600-800 mm of precipitation per year), in the mountains it is cool and humid (1500-2500 mm of precipitation per year). In summer, frequent fogs and rains, in winter - heavy snowfalls. In the south, under the influence of the Adriatic, a Mediterranean, mild, warm (hot in summer) climate prevails.

Population of Bosnia and Herzegovina

There is no complete information about the size and structure of the population. During the military conflict of 1992-95, approx. 250 thousand people, St. 30 thousand people, approximately 2 million people became refugees and displaced persons.

Infant mortality 13 people per 1000 newborns; the average life expectancy for men is 71 years, for women - 76 years.

Men - 48.7%, women - 51.3%; urban population - 43%. Age structure of the population: up to 14 years old - 17.8%, 15-64 years old - 70.5%, 65 years and older - 11.7%. The retirement age is 65 years. 95% have primary education, 57% - secondary.

Ethnic composition: the state-forming peoples of the Bosniaks (Slavs who profess Islam) - 43.6%, Serbs - 31.4%, Croats - 17.3%, the rest - 7.7% (Montenegrins, Macedonians, Albanians, Gypsies, Rusyns, Jews and etc.).

The most common languages ​​that coincide with the state ones are Bosan, Serbian, Croatian.

Main religions: Islam (Sunnis), Orthodoxy, Catholicism.

History of Bosnia and Herzegovina

The oldest population is the Illyrians. From the 1st century AD under the rule of Rome, in the 6th century. - Byzantium. In the 6th-7th centuries. the territory is inhabited by Slavs. In the 12th century the Bosnian principality was formed, headed by a ban (prince) - the most famous is ban Kulin (1180-1204). On the territory of the principality, Bogomilism became widespread, on the basis of which the so-called. Bosnian church. Medieval Bosnia reached its peak under Stephen I Tvrtko (1353-91), who significantly expanded his possessions and proclaimed himself king. A region in the south was annexed to the Kingdom of Bosnia, later called Herzegovina (in the 15th century, its ruler, Stepan Vukchich, who recognized his fief dependence on the German king, received the title of duke from the latter).

From 1463 the territory of Bosnia, and from 1482 - Herzegovina under the Ottoman yoke. A significant part of the population converted to Islam.

Resistance to Turkish rule acquired a particularly wide scope in the 19th century, culminating in the Herzegovinian-Bosnian uprising of 1875-78.

By decision of the Berlin Congress in 1878, B. and G. was occupied by Austria (annexed by Austria in 1908). The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina caused an acute political crisis in international relations. The assassination of the Austrian Archduke F. Ferdinand on June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo served as a pretext for the 1st World War. Since 1918, Bosnia and Herzegovina has been part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (since 1929 - the Kingdom of Yugoslavia). In 1941-45 it was occupied by Nazi Germany and included in the so-called. Independent State of Croatia.

In 1945-92 - as part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia as a republic. In 1992, independence was proclaimed in Bosnia and Herzegovina on the basis of the results of a referendum (the Serbian community, which boycotted the referendum, created its own entity - the Republika Srpska). These events caused an escalation of interethnic conflicts, which escalated into a large-scale military conflict that lasted until the autumn of 1995. The hostilities were stopped thanks to the active efforts of the international community. In accordance with the agreements reached in Dayton (USA), in Paris on December 14, 1995, the warring parties signed the "General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina", also known as the Dayton Agreement.

State structure and political system of Bosnia and Herzegovina

The state-building process of Bosnia and Herzegovina is in its initial stages. This is a state with a unique form of structure and government, combining elements of federation and confederation (the institution of collective presidency, the presence of two armies, etc.). The Constitution adopted in 1995 is in force (it is part of the Dayton Agreement).

Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of two entities (entities): the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska.

The largest cities: Sarajevo, Banja Luka, Tuzla, Mostar, Zenica.

The function of the head of state is performed by a collective body - the Presidium of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which consists of three representatives of the constituent peoples. The highest legislative body is the Parliamentary Assembly (Parliament), which consists of two chambers (the House of Peoples and the House of Representatives). The highest body of executive power is the Council of Ministers.

Presidium of Bosnia and Herzegovina: B. Paravac (Serb), S. Tihic (Bosnjak) and D. Covic (Croat) (2003).

Collegium of the House of Peoples: V. Yukic (Croat), G. Milojevic (Serb) and M. Pamuk (Boshnak).

Board of the House of Representatives: S. Jafarovich (Bosnjak), N. Shpirich (Serb) and M. Raguzh (Croat).

The members of the Presidium of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the leadership of the parliamentary chambers rotate in place of the presiding officer every 8 months.

Head of the Council of Ministers - A. Terzic.

Members of the Presidium of Bosnia and Herzegovina and deputies of the House of Representatives are elected by direct secret ballot separately in each entity (a Serbian representative in the Presidium and 1/3 of the deputies of the House of Representatives from the Republika Srpska, representatives of Bosniaks and Croats in the Presidium and 2/3 of the deputies of the House of Representatives from the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina). The term of office is 4 years (the current composition was elected in 2002). The House of Nations (5 Serbs, 5 Bosniaks and 5 Croats) is formed by the Parliaments of the Entities.

Entities (the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska) have broad powers with elements of state independence and have their own constitutions. The functions of executive and legislative power in each of the Entities are carried out by the president, government and parliament, which act virtually independently of the central authorities.

The party system is built on a national basis. The leading parties represent Serbs, Croats and Bosniaks: Serbian Democratic Party, Croatian Democratic Commonwealth, Democratic Action Party. Attempts are being made to create multi-ethnic parties (the most influential of them is the Social Democratic Party of Bosnia and Herzegovina).

Domestic policy is aimed at the implementation of the Dayton Agreement, which provides for the strengthening of state institutions, the return of refugees, the settlement of interethnic relations, and the modernization of the economy. Significant impact on inner life the country has a broad international presence (peacekeeping military contingent, the institution of the High Representative, etc.).

The main foreign policy priorities are integration into European and Euro-Atlantic structures and regional cooperation.

The armed forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina are represented by two independent armies of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska in a ratio of 2: 1. The total strength is approx. 12 thousand people

Bosnia and Herzegovina has had diplomatic relations with the Russian Federation since 1995.

Economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina

GDP - 5.1 billion US dollars, GDP per capita - 1194 US dollars, number of employed - 625 thousand people, unemployed - 435.5 thousand people, unemployment rate 41%, inflation - 0.2% (2001).

Sectoral structure of the economy (in terms of contribution to GDP): industry - 25.3%, agriculture - 11.9%, services - 62.8%

The most important industries are: ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, production of electricity and building materials, metalworking, textile, leather and footwear, petrochemical, woodworking, food.

Agriculture: crop production, incl. grain farming (corn, wheat), horticulture, vegetable growing, viticulture, industrial crops (flax, tobacco, olives, sugar beets); grazing (cattle, sheep).

Transport: railways (1031 km, traffic volume 3.2 million tons), asphalt roads (3788 km), airports in Sarajevo (280 thousand people per year), Mostar (100 thousand people), Banja Luka (40 thousand people), Tuzla (special transportation).

Communication - telephone, postal, telegraph, teletype, radio, Internet, etc.

The tourism sector is in the process of recovery (before the military conflict, tourism revenues amounted to 2.5% of GDP) .

The economic policy is focused on two directions: the restoration of the economy destroyed during the hostilities and its reform on a market basis. Social problems are solved largely through foreign financial assistance.

The Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina is pursuing a policy independent of the Bosnian authorities aimed at firmly supporting the exchange rate of the local currency KM against the euro. As a result, there is practically no inflation in the country, which is achieved essentially by non-economic methods. The banking system is in its infancy (40 commercial banks operate, some of them with foreign capital).

The state budget (KM 530 million for 2003) is formed on the basis of contributions from entities and performs limited functions: servicing external debt and financing the activities of national bodies. In the tax sphere, a process of reform is underway with the aim of introducing a single value added tax in the country. Domestic debt - approx. 8 billion KM, external - 5 billion KM.

Average salary - 686 KM.

The foreign economic sphere is distinguished by a significant trade deficit (export - 2.1 billion KM, import - 8.2 billion KM, 2002). Export structure - raw and processed aluminium, electricity, timber, textiles, leather goods; import - oil and oil products, food industry products, machinery and equipment, electronics. Main trading partners: Croatia, Italy, Germany, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro.

Science and culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosnia and Herzegovina has a three-tier education system. The first step is the main compulsory 8-year comprehensive school, the second - a 4-year gymnasium or secondary vocational school, the third - universities (4-5 years of study). The main universities are in Sarajevo, Banja Luka and Mostar. The largest scientific center is the Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina was formed under the influence of various traditions. The surviving ancient buildings bear the imprint of the Roman era, the Middle Ages are distinguished by a mixture of Byzantine and Central European styles. Under the Turks, numerous mosques, madrasahs and bridges were created, many of which became widely known architectural monuments (Begova and Ali Pasha mosques in Sarajevo, the Old Bridge in Mostar, the bridge in Visegrad, etc.). For con. 19 - beg. 20th century typical imitation of Eastern and Renaissance culture (the building of the city hall "Vechnica" in Sarajevo). Along with mosques, majestic Orthodox and Catholic churches have been created here (the Church of the Holy Virgin and the Cathedral in Sarajevo). During the military conflict, a significant number of architectural and historical monuments on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina were completely or partially destroyed.

The complex and dramatic history of this country has left a significant imprint on Bosnian literature and art. The best works are devoted to the philosophical understanding of the difficult fate of the Bosnian peoples (novels Nobel laureate I. Andrich and M. Selimovich, paintings by I. Muezinovich and others). The work of internationally recognized film directors E. Kusturica and D. Tanovich is connected with Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The purposes of the post-war restoration of the cultural traditions of Bosnia and Herzegovina are the international events held annually in Sarajevo: the Sarajevo Winter and Bascarshia Nights music festivals, the Experimental Theater Festival, and the Sarajevo Film Festival.